Psychology of Criminal Behaviour A Canadian Perspective 2nd Edition by Shelley Brown – Test Bank

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Chapter 5: Adolescent Offenders (Second Edition)

Psychology of Criminal Behaviour: A Canadian Perspective

CHAPTER 5: Adolescent Offenders

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. The Young Offenders Act (YOA) was replaced in 2003 by the:

a. Youth Criminal Justice Act (YCJA)

b. Juvenile Delinquents Act (JDA)

c. Canadian Justice Act (CJA)

d. Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedom (CCRF)

Answer: a Difficulty: Easy Page: 135 Skill: Recall

2. As a first step when coming into contact with antisocial youth, police are to consider:

a. b. c. d. bringing the offender directly to youth court

community options and less serious alternatives

charging the individual in order to get them into adult court

pursuing light sentences even if they have committed seriously violent crimes

Answer: b Difficulty: Moderate Page: 135 Skill: Recall

3. According to data collected by Statistic Canada for 2011-2012, youth crime rates:

a. b. c. d. are the highest since these data were first collected in 1991-1992

are the lowest since these data were first collected in 1991-1992

have not changed since data were first collected in 1991-1992

have increased since 1991-1992, but only for violent crimes

Answer: b Difficulty: Moderate Page: 136-137 Skill: Recall

4. According to Statistics Canada, the most common sentence imposed on adolescent

offenders in 2011-2012 was:

a. probation

b. fines

c. jail time

d. community service

Answer: a Difficulty: Moderate Page: 138 Skill: Recall

5. Following the YCJA, in 2011 to 2012, approximately what percentage of guilty

offenders received custodial sentences, in contrast to 29% in the early 2000s?

a. 45%

b. 28%

c. 15%

d. 72%

Answer: c Difficulty: Moderate Page: 139 Skill: Recall

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Psychology of Criminal Behaviour: A Canadian Perspective

6. When examining the trajectory to adult offending, a clear pattern found is that:

a. early onset of antisocial behaviour is linked to more serious and persistent

antisocial behaviour later in life

b. early onset of antisocial behaviour is not linked to more serious and persistent

antisocial behaviour later in life

c. early onset of antisocial behaviour is a far more common occurrence than late

onset antisocial behaviour

d. most young children with behavioural difficulties go on to become adult

offenders

Answer: a Difficulty: Moderate Page: 140 Skill: Recall

7. Genetic studies have found that fathers who engage in antisocial behaviour:

a. are equally likely to have children who also engage in antisocial behaviour as

fathers who are not anti-social

b. are likely to have children who also engage in antisocial behaviour, if they

live with their father

c. d. tend to have children who are not antisocial

are more likely to have children who also engage in antisocial behaviour, with

a stronger link for sons than daughters

Answer: d Difficulty: Challenging Page: 141 Skill: Applied

8. The main finding within the cognitive perspective on conduct disordered behaviour is

that conduct-disordered youth demonstrate:

a. b. relatively good problem solving skills

relatively few cognitive distortions but mistakenly attribute hostile intent to

ambiguous situations

c. cognitive deficits and distortions, attending to fewer cues and mistakenly

attributing hostile intent to ambiguous situations

d. a tendency to focus on emotional cues in the environment with no cognitive

distortions

Answer: c Difficulty: Challenging Page: 142 Skill: Recall

9. Reactive aggression is defined as:

a. emotionally aggressive response to a perceived threat or frustration

b. aggression directed at achieving a goal or receiving positive reinforcers

c. planned aggression

d. distorted aggression

Answer: a Difficulty: Easy Page: 142 Skill: Recall

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc. 41Chapter 5: Adolescent Offenders Psychology of Criminal Behaviour: A Canadian Perspective

(Second Edition)

10.Patterson’s (1982) coercive family process model, where aggressive behaviour is

imitated, is consistent with which theory of adolescent offending?

a. coercion theory

b. cognitive theory

c. biological theory

d. social learning theory

Answer: d Difficulty: Moderate Page: 142 Skill: Applied

11.When considering antisocial behaviour and criminological risk factors the general

finding is that:

a. b. one risk factor alone can be sufficient to lead to offending

the presence of several criminological risk factors increases a youth’s

likelihood of offending

c. the presence of numerous risk factors guarantee a youth will become a

adolescent offender

d. risk factors rarely have interactive effects

Answer: b Difficulty: Moderate Page: 143 Skill: Applied

12.The strongest individual predictor of adolescent offending is the presence of:

a. hyperactivity as a child

b. low verbal intelligence

c. delayed language development

d. aggressive behaviour before the age of 13.

Answer: d Difficulty: Moderate Page: 144 Skill: Recall

13.Two of the five main correlates of delinquency for male and female youth are:

a. b. c. permissive parenting and poor school attendance

negative school attachment and divorced parents

inconsistent or inadequate parenting and antisocial peer involvement

d. aggression and personality disorders

Answer: c Difficulty: Challenging Page: 144-145 Skill: Recall

14.A child who has multiple risk factors but who can overcome them and prevail has

been termed:

a. resilient

b. hardy

c. adversarial

d. impact resistant

Answer: a Difficulty: Easy Page: 147 Skill: Recall

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(Second Edition)

15.Protective factors are variables that decrease the likelihood of a negative outcome

such as antisocial behaviour and are effective because they:

a. b. c. maintain the same level of exposure to risk factors over time

protect the child from risk factors by isolating the child

reduce negative outcomes by helping to develop and maintain self-esteem and

self-efficacy

d. limit the child’s problem-solving capacity

Answer: c Difficulty: Challenging Page: 147 Skill: Applied

16.In terms of the protective factor of peers, the research suggests the following:

a. b. peer groups have relatively little impact either way on antisocial behaviour

associating with peers who disapprove of antisocial behaviour is not

considered protective

c. associating with pro-social children does not provide any protection against

antisocial behaviour

d. associating with peers who disapprove of antisocial behaviour is a protective

factor against antisocial behaviour

Answer: d Difficulty: Moderate Page: 149 Skill: Applied

17. A child who presents a pattern of negativistic, hostile, and defiant behaviour would

likely receive a diagnosis of:

a. Child psychopathy

b. Oppositional defiant disorder

c. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

d. Conduct disorder

Answer: b Difficulty: Easy Page: 152 Skill: Recall

18. All of the following are examples of risk assessment tools used with adolescent

offenders in Canada except the:

a. Static-99

b. Adolescent Chemical Dependency Inventory

c. Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth

d. Pride in Delinquency Scale

Answer: a Difficulty: Moderate Page: 155 Skill: Recall

TRUE/FALSE

1. When dealing with antisocial youth, police are to use “extrajudicial measures”,

including warnings or referrals for treatment.

Answer: True Difficulty: Moderate Page: 135 Skill: Recall

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc. 43Chapter 5: Adolescent Offenders Psychology of Criminal Behaviour: A Canadian Perspective

(Second Edition)

2. Part of the intent of the Youth Criminal Justice Act (YCJA) is to treat antisocial

youth as any adult offender would be treated.

Answer: False Difficulty: Moderate Page: 135 Skill:

Recall

3. When examining the prediction of future adult offending, age of onset is a critical

factor.

Answer: True Difficulty: Easy Page: 140 Skill: Recall

4. Childhood-onset trajectory is a very common occurrence, affecting about 40% of

the general population.

Answer: False Difficulty: Easy Page: 140 Skill:

Recall

5. Researchers have investigated the brain region responsible for planning and

inhibiting behaviour to explain why some youth engage in antisocial acts.

Answer: True Difficulty: Easy Page: 141 Skill: Recall

6. Research has found that antisocial adolescents have more frontal lobe inhibition

than adolescents who do not engage in antisocial behaviour.

Answer: False Difficulty: Challenging Page: 141 Skill:

Recall

7. Proactive aggression is aggression in response to a perceived threat or frustration.

Answer: False Difficulty: Easy Page: 142 Skill:

Recall

8. Proactive aggressive youth are likely to have deficiencies in generating alternate

responses and often choose an aggressive response.

Answer: True Difficulty: Easy Page: 142 Skill: Recall

9. In keeping with the coercive family process model, a female who witnessed her

mothers’ aggressive behaviour toward partners was significantly less aggressive

toward friends than average.

Answer: False Difficulty: Moderate Page: 143 Skill:

Recall

10.Offenders are more likely to have had delivery/birth complications compared to

non-offenders.

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc. 44Chapter 5: Adolescent Offenders Psychology of Criminal Behaviour: A Canadian Perspective

(Second Edition)

Answer: True Difficulty: Easy Page: 143-144 Skill: Recall

11.In Canada, the largest proportion of youth gangs is Caucasian.

Answer: False Difficulty: Moderate Page: 146 Skill:

Recall

12.Living in a low-income neighborhood is a risk factor for antisocial behaviour.

Answer: True Difficulty: Easy Page: 146 Skill: Recall

13.Data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children indicates that

approximately 40% of youth admit to engaging in at least one antisocial act in the

last year.

Answer: True Difficulty: Moderate Page: 146 Skill: Recall

14.If a child is described as being resilient, it refers to the fact that he/she has few risk

factors.

Answer: False Difficulty: Moderate Page: 147 Skill:

Recall

15.Intelligence, commitment to school, and academic achievement are all considered

protective factors for adolescents at risk for antisocial behaviour.

Answer: True Difficulty: Moderate Page: 147-148 Skill: Recall

SHORT ANSWER

1. How are youthful offenders (both under 12 years and 12-18 years old) charged and

prosecuted in the Canadian Criminal Code?

Answer: In the Canadian Criminal Code, children under the age of 12 cannot charged,

even when they commit violent acts such as murder. Professionals such as social

workers, psychologists, and even police officers may intervene but the goal is to provide

appropriate intervention or treatment so that these acts do not continue. In order to be

processed through Canada’s criminal justice system, an offender must be a minimum of

12. Prior to this age, a child’s behaviour is governed by the Child and Family Services

Act. Once a child is 12, they are assumed to be in sufficient control of their behaviour

such that acts committed against the Canadian Criminal Code will be pursued by the

justice system. However, Canada does recognize that youth between the ages of 12 and

18 are developmentally different than adults (over 18) and outlines provisions for

younger aged “offenders” in the Youth Criminal Justice Act, which provides direction on

how youth committing Criminal Code offences should be “processed.”

Difficulty: Moderate Page: 133-134 Skill: Applied

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Psychology of Criminal Behaviour: A Canadian Perspective

2. Explain the two trajectories to adult offending that are observed in adolescent

offenders, as well as which is linked to more serious offending later on in life.

Answer: Two trajectories can be seen with adolescent offenders: child-onset versus

adolescent onset (Moffitt 1993). For child-onset offenders, behavioural problems start

very early in childhood. These adolescents often have histories that include behavioural

problems dating back to daycare and preschool. As babies, they were difficult to soothe

with problematic temperaments and were aggressive with other children, physically

hitting them and throwing temper tantrums. In contrast, adolescent-onset offenders

begin to show behavioural problems in their teen years. These adolescents may engage in

antisocial acts such as truancy, theft, and vandalism. When examining the trajectory to

adult offending, age of onset is a critical factor. A clear pattern has been found linking

early onset of antisocial behaviour to more serious and persistent antisocial behaviour

later in life (e.g., Fergusson and Woodward 2000; Loeber and Farrington 2000).

Difficulty: Moderate Page: 139-140 Skill: Recall

3. What community influences are factors in adolescent offending?

Answer: Where a child is raised can be a risk factor for adolescent offending. Just as

parental income (i.e., lower socio-economic status) is a familial risk factor, so is living in

a low-income neighbourhood (e.g., Farrington 1989; Henry, Avshalom, Moffitt, and Silva

1996). Assault when committing a felony or robbery is twice as common among

adolescents raised in low-income/subsidized neighbourhoods than adolescents raised in

middle-class areas (Hawkins et al. 2000). Lower-income neighbourhoods also give rise

to the opportunity to witness violence. Farrell and Bruce (1997) found that exposure to

community violence is related to adolescent offending. Thus, disadvantaged

neighbourhoods provide an opportunity to learn delinquent behaviour, associate with

delinquent peers, and possibly have delinquent behaviour reinforced.

Difficulty: Moderate Page: 146 Skill: Applied

4. Explain the term “resiliency” as it relates to adolescent offending.

Answer: Resilience is described as the ability to overcome stress and adversity

(Winfield 1994). It has been suggested that resilient children may have “protective”

factors that allow them to persevere in the face of adversity. We define protective

factors as variables or factors that, if present, decrease the likelihood of a negative

outcome (such as antisocial behaviour and adolescent offending) or increase the

likelihood of a positive outcome (DeMatteo and Marczyk 2005). Rutter (1990) identifies

four ways that protective factors are effective:

1. They reduce negative outcomes by changing the level of the child’s exposure to a risk

factor.

2. They change the negative chain reaction following exposure to risk.

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(Second Edition)

3. They help develop and maintain self-esteem and self-efficacy.

4. They avail opportunities to children they would not otherwise have.

As with risk factors, protective factors occur across various domains: individual,

familial, school, peer, and community.

Difficulty: Moderate Page: 147 Skill: Applied

5. Describe the nature of internalizing and externalizing problems that children may

present before age 12. Identify which is more predictive of criminal offending later on in

life and why.

Answer: Broadly, children’s emotional and behavioural difficulties can be categorized as

internalizing or externalizing problems (Rutter 1990). Internalizing problems are

emotional difficulties such as anxiety, depression, and obsessions. Externalizing

problems are behavioural difficulties such as delinquency, fighting, bullying, lying and

destructive behaviour. It is the externalizing problems that can develop into more

persistent and serious antisocial acts and receive the attention of parents, teachers, and the

criminal justice system. Externalizing problems have been considered more difficult to

treat and more likely to have long term persistence (Ebata, Peterson, and Conger 1990;

Robbins, 1986). Externalizing disorders have been known to be quite stable, though

symptoms often peak in teenage years and decrease in the late 20s (Rutter 1995). Males

are more likely to have externalizing difficulties than females (Barkley 1997, Rutter

1990).

Difficulty: Moderate Page: 152 Skill: Applied

SHORT ESSAY

1. Identify and explain the three main objectives of the Youth Criminal Justice Act.

Answer: Part of the intent of the YCJA is to keep adolescent offenders out of court and

out of custody. The three main objectives of the YCJA are:

1. To prevent youth crime

2. To provide meaningful consequences and encourage responsibility of behaviour

3. To improve rehabilitation and reintegration of youth into the community

As a first step when coming into contact with antisocial youth, police are to consider

community options and less serious alternatives before bringing adolescents to the

attention of youth court (Youth Criminal Justice Act 2002: s. 7). These alternatives are

called extrajudicial measures and include giving a warning or making a referral for

treatment (with the consent of the adolescent) (Youth Criminal Justice Act 2002: s. 10).

Once an adolescent is charged, however, they can no longer be transferred to adult court

under the YCJA. Rather, if an adolescent defendant is found guilty the judge can impose

an adult sentence as long as the defendant is at least 14 years old (may be set at 15 or 16

depending on jurisdiction). A key issue in determining sentencing is that the sentence

must be proportionate to the seriousness of the offence. Expanded sentencing options are

also provided for under the YCJA. Judges can give a reprimand (i.e., lecture or warning

to the adolescent), an intensive support and supervision order, an attendance order (i.e.,

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(Second Edition)

adolescent must attend a specific program), a deferred custody and supervision order (i.e.,

adolescent can serve sentence in community as long as imposed conditions are met), and

an intensive rehabilitative custody and supervision order (i.e., adolescent in custody

receive intensive services and supervision) (Youth Criminal Justice Act 2002: s. 42). The

YCJA also considers the victims of adolescent offenders. Victims are to be informed of

court proceedings and given an opportunity to participate. They also have the right to

access youth court records and participate in community-based dispositions (Youth

Criminal Justice Act 2002: s. 3).

Difficulty: Moderate Page: 135-136 Skill: Applied

2. Briefly compare and contrast the three broad theories that explain the development of

adolescent offenders.

Answer:

1.Biological Theories: A number of genetic and physiological differences exist between

youth who engage in antisocial behaviour and those who do not. Genetic studies have

found that fathers who engage in antisocial behaviour are more likely to have children (a

stronger link for sons than daughters) who also engage in antisocial behaviour

(Frick et al. 1992). Twin and adoption studies further support this conclusion.

Specifically, children who have an antisocial biological father are more likely to engage

in antisocial behaviour, even when raised apart from the father, suggesting that

environment is not the only influence (Cadoret and Cain 1980; Jarey and Stewart 1985).

In addition, neurological researchers have found that antisocial adolescents have less

frontal lobe inhibition than adolescents who do not engage in the antisocial behaviour

(Moffitt and Henry 1989).

2.Cognitive Theories: Kenneth Dodge and his colleagues proposed a model of conduct

disordered behaviour that focuses on the thought processes that occur in social

interactions (Crick and Dodge 1994; Dodge 2000). Issues include cognitive deficits and

distortions (Fontaine, Burks, and Dodge 2002) and limited problem solving. Cognitive

deficits are likely to be present in early childhood and may contribute to child-onset

conduct disorder (Coy et al. 2001).

3.Social Theories: Bandura’s (1965) social learning theory suggests that children learn

their behaviour from observing others. Children are more likely to imitate behaviour that

receives positive reinforcement than behaviour that receives negative reinforcement or

punishment. Studies have found that children who are highly aggressive and engage in

antisocial behaviour have often witnessed parents, siblings, or grandparents engage in

similar behaviour (Farrington 1995; Waschbusch 2002). Consistent with this view is

Patterson’s (1982) coercive family process model, where aggressive behaviour among

youth develops from imitation of parents and reinforcement. Other aspects of Patterson’s

model include the role of inadequate parental supervision and inconsistent disciplining of

children. The combination of these factors increases the likelihood of youth behaving in

antisocial ways. Adolescents who witness inter-parental violence are at risk for

aggression (Moretti, Obsuth, Odgers, and Reebye 2006).

Difficulty: Moderate Page: 141-143 Skill: Applied

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Psychology of Criminal Behaviour: A Canadian Perspective

3. Outline the five criminological risk factors that increases a youth’s likelihood of

offending.

Answer: Risk factors occur across various domains: individual, familial, school, peer,

and community.

Individual: A number of prenatal complications can predispose a fetus to behavioural

problems in childhood and potential adolescent offending. Mednick and Kandel (1988)

suggest that offenders are more likely to have had delivery/birth complications compared

to non-offenders. However, even before delivery, a mother’s use of drugs, alcohol, and

cigarette smoking during pregnancy increases the fetus’s risk for later behavioural

difficulties (Cohen et al. 2002). Once a child is born, their own temperament can present

a risk factor for later behavioural difficulties. Hyperactivity, attention problems,

impulsivity, and risk-taking have been associated with later adolescent offending

(Hawkins et al. 1998). Substance abuse, especially starting at a young age (before the

teen years), has received substantial support as a risk factor for adolescent offending

(Elliott, Huizinga, and Ageton 1985). Low verbal intelligence and delayed language

development also have been associated with behavioural problems (Seguin, Pihl, Harden,

Tremblay, and Boulrice 1995). Perhaps the strongest predictor of adolescent offending is

the presence of aggressive behaviour before the age of 13.

Familial: Researchers have found that poor parental supervision, low parental

involvement, parental conflict, and parental aggression are related to later antisocial

behaviour. Child abuse, neglect, and maltreatment are also risk factors for behavioural

difficulties. Abuse factors may pose a greater risk to boys, who may respond by acting

aggressively and later engaging in spousal abuse. Lack of secure attachment to parents,

parental loss, and divorce are risk factors for later behavioural problems. Other risk

factors for delinquency include low socioeconomic status, large family size, and parental

mental health problems. Parents who are heavy drinkers increase the likelihood that their

children will act in antisocial ways, possibly because when parents drink, they are unable

to provide adequate parenting and supervision.

School: A number of school-related risk factors, such as poor academic performance,

particularly in elementary school; low commitment to school; and low educational

aspirations have been found to be associated with delinquent behaviour (Blum, Ireland,

and Blum 2003; Hinshaw 1992). Truancy or not attending school is also a risk factor.

For example, Farrington (1989) found that high truancy rates between the ages of 12 and

14 are related to adolescent offending that extends into adulthood.

Peer: Risk factors related to peers are perhaps the most important during adolescence,

when the peer group reigns paramount over family influences. This association is true

even at a very young age. Young children who play with aggressive peers at an early age

are at risk for behavioural problems (Fergusson and Horwood 1998; Laird et al. 2001).

Taking this risk factor one step further, gang membership is more predictive of antisocial

behaviour than associating with delinquent peers (Hill et al. 1999). Social disapproval

and being rejected are likely to occur with aggressive children and adolescents (Coie,

Belding, and Underwood 1988; Ebata et al. 1990; Rutter 1990), and rejected, aggressive

children are at risk for behavioural problems (Parker and Asher 1987; Rudolph and Asher

2000). Adolescents who are socially isolated or withdrawn (e.g., low involvement in

traditional, structured social activities) are at an increased risk for engaging in antisocial

behaviour.

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(Second Edition)

Community: Where one is raised can be a risk factor for adolescent offending. Just as

parental income (i.e., lower socio-economic status) is a familial risk factor, so is living in

a low-income neighbourhood. Lower-income neighbourhoods also give rise to the

opportunity to witness violence. Thus disadvantaged neighbourhoods provide an

opportunity to learn delinquent behaviour, associate with delinquent peers, and possibly

have delinquent behaviour reinforced. Access to weapons also increases the risk for

violence.

Difficulty: Moderate Page: 143-146 Skill: Applied

4. Explain why the strongest predictor of adolescent offending is the presence of

aggressive behaviour before the age of 13.

Answer: See Individual and especially peer influences in short essay answer #3.

Difficulty: Challenging Page: 144-145 Skill: Applied

5. Define and describe primary, secondary, and tertiary interventions aimed at decreasing

adolescent offending. Outline one real-world example of each.

Answer:

1.Primary interventions: These strategies are implemented prior to any violence

occurring with the goal of decreasing the likelihood that violence will occur later on (i.e.,

prevention). Their goal is to identify groups (of children) that have numerous risk factors

for engaging in antisocial behaviour later on. The belief is that if the needs of these

children are addressed early, before violence has occurred, then the likelihood that they

will go on to become adolescent offenders is reduced. Primary intervention approaches

include family-oriented strategies, school-oriented strategies, and community-wide

strategies.

Some examples:

Family-oriented: An example of a family oriented strategy is a popular parent-

education program known as The Incredible Years Parenting Program, a 12-

week training program that starts with building a strong emotional bond between

parent(s) and child, and then teaches parents how to set behavioural expectations

for their children, monitor children’s behaviour, reinforce positive behaviour,

provide consequences for inappropriate behaviour, and develop and use effective

communication skills (Webster-Stratton 1992).

School-oriented: Project Head Start is designed for children from low socio-

economic status backgrounds. A number of social services are provided to these

children and families (e.g., nutrition, structured activities, academic tutoring, and

medical services) to reduce disadvantages that may interfere with learning. A

different in-school program from the more “traditional” school programs is

known as Scared Straight. The program was developed in the United States in

during the 1970s to “scare” at-risk children from choosing a life of crime.

Discussions of sexual assault are included, as is a visit to a prison (Finckenauer

1982). Finally, Fast Track, the largest and longest-lasting funded program in the

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Psychology of Criminal Behaviour: A Canadian Perspective

US for primary intervention, addresses social-cognitive processes via social-skills

training, parent training, school programming, peer mentoring, and tutoring.

Community-Wide: One program developed in Canada in 1985 is known as the

SNAP Under 12 Outreach Project (SNAP ORP). The SNAP ORP is a

standardized 12-week outpatient program with five key components: the SNAP

Children’s Club, a concurrent parents’ group, one-on-one family counselling,

individual befriending for children, and academic tutoring.

2. Secondary interventions: These strategies attempt to reduce the frequency of violence

(i.e., intervention). These are directed at adolescents who have either had contact with

the police or criminal justice system or have demonstrated behavioural problems at

school. The goal of these strategies is to provide social and clinical services so that

adolescents do not go on to commit serious violence. Many of the same approaches

using the primary interventions are used here. One of the main differences is the “target”

(i.e., which children are involved in the program) rather than the content of the

intervention.

Examples: Common strategies include diversion programs, alternative and

vocational education, family therapy, and skills training (Mulvey et al., 1993).

One particular type is Multisystemic therapy (MST) examines a child across the

contexts or “systems” in which they live – family, peers, school, neighbourhood,

and community. Families have access to a case manager 24 hours a day, 7 days a

week. Areas that may be targeted in MST treatment include family

communication, parent management, and cognitive-behavioural issues.

3. Tertiary interventions: These strategies attempt to prevent violence from reoccurring

(i.e., treatment). They are aimed at adolescents who have engaged in criminal acts and

who may have already been processed through formal court proceedings (Flannery and

Williams 1999). Recipients are often chronic and serious adolescent offenders. The goal

of tertiary intervention strategies is to minimize the impact of existing risk factors and

foster the development of protective factors, which may reduce the likelihood that the at-

risk adolescent will engage in future offending.

Examples: Strategies include inpatient treatment (i.e., institutional, residential)

and community-based treatment (Mulvey et al., 1993). The approach can be one

of retribution (served in an institutional setting) or rehabilitation (served in a

community setting).

Difficulty: Moderate Page: 156-161 Skill: Applied

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