Social Psychology 6th Canadian Edition By Aronson – Test Bank

Complete Test Bank With Answers

 

 

Sample Questions Posted Below

 

1) Barbara replies to her therapist, “How do I see myself? Well, I’m socially anxious, insecure, relatively intelligent, and terribly shy.” Barbara’s response reflects her

A) self-concept.

B) executive function.

C) stream of consciousness.

D) looking glass self.

E) feelings of low self-worth.

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 108-110 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Moderate

2) Assume that when exposed to a mirror, chimpanzees will use the mirror to aid in grooming (e.g., to pick food from their teeth) and to entertain themselves by making faces. The chimps’ behaviour before the mirror would suggest that

A) great apes have a sense of self.

B) mammals have a sense of self.

C) some animals engage in introspection.

D) like humans, mammals are self-aware.

E) many animals are curious and social.

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 108-109 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

3) Gordon Gallup (1977) briefly anesthetized chimpanzees and painted an odorless red dye on their heads. When they awoke and looked in the mirror, the chimps immediately reached to touch their brows and ears where the dye was. These findings suggest that chimps

A) are capable of developing a sense of self-esteem.

B) have a complex, multifaceted sense of self.

C) possess a self-concept much like a human.

D) develop a sense of self-recognition comparable to that of two-year-old humans.

E) are capable of complex thought.

Answer: D

Type: MC Page Ref: 108-109 Skill: Conceptual Difficulty: Moderate

4) Which of the following would be most likely to reach to touch a spot of red dye when seeing his or her reflection in a mirror?

A) an adult rhesus monkey

B) an adult chimpanzee

C) a six-month-old human infant

D) a one-year-old human infant

E) an infant gorilla

Answer: B

Type: MC Page Ref: 108-109 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Moderate

5) Psychologists who have studied the development of self-concept over the lifespan have found that the self-concept starts out _______ and gradually becomes _______ with increasing age.

A) extremely negative; more positive

B) concrete; more abstract and complex

C) extremely positive; more realistic

D) socially focused; individually focused

E) individually focused; socially focused

Answer: B

Type: MC Page Ref: 108-109 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

6) Consider the following self-description: “I have blue eyes and brown hair. I have two sisters. I hate vegetables, but I love ice cream.” Such a self-description was most likely provided by the typical

A) eight-year old child.

B) adult.

C) high school student.

D) two-year old child.

E) college student.

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 108-109 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Moderate

7) According to the research by Jennifer Campbell and her colleagues, people low in self-concept clarity

A) carefully consider the variables that may be impacting how they feel.

B) are less likely to engage in positive forms of self-focus such as reflection.

C) attempt to make internal attributions to explain their behaviour.

D) frequently engage in introspection.

E) often ask their close friends about what to do.

Answer: B

Type: MC Page Ref: 110 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

8) According to information presented in the text, people who are low in self-concept clarity are

A) more self-confident and aware of their internal states.

B) more likely to experience both positive and negative emotions.

C) more likely to be neurotic and have low self-esteem.

D) more likely to engage in self-analysis.

E) often narcissistic and self-centered.

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 110 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

9) The development of our sense of self is partly influenced by the culture in which we grow up. For example, in Western cultures people tend to have a(n) _______ view of the self, whereas in non-Western cultures people tend to have a(n) _______ view of the self.

A) intrinsic; extrinsic

B) extrinsic; intrinsic

C) interdependent; independent

D) independent; interdependent

E) clear; poorly defined

Answer: D

Type: MC Page Ref: 110-112 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

10) Whereas Americans have a proverb, “The squeaky wheel gets the grease,” Japanese have a proverb that states “The nail that stands out gets pounded down.” These two different proverbs mirror social-psychological research that has demonstrated that people in Asian cultures

A) do not consider social interaction important.

B) do not hold differentiated self-concepts.

C) are more likely to defer to authority than Americans.

D) have a more interdependent concept of self than Americans.

E) are more authoritarian than Americans.

Answer: D

Type: MC Page Ref: 110-112 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Moderate

11) When asked to finish a sentence beginning “I am…,” respondents from Asian countries are more likely to mention _______, because they grew up in a(n) _______ culture.

A) actual self; authoritarian

B) the ideal self; authoritarian

C) the ideal self; less oppressive

D) group membership; interdependent

E) the outer self; interdependent

Answer: D

Type: MC Page Ref: 110-112 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

12) Consider the following self-description: “It is important to me to make others happy. I work hard to cooperate with others and seldom get into arguments. My friends are more important to me than my professional success.” A(n) _______ is most likely to have provided such a self-description.

A) teacher living in Berlin, Germany

B) professor living in Regina, Saskatchewan

C) writer living in Paris, France

D) manager living in Cleveland, Ohio

E) executive living in Tokyo, Japan

Answer: E

Type: MC Page Ref: 110-112 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

13) “My close relationships are an important reflection of who I am” and “when I think of myself, I often think of my close friends and family also” are two items from a scale which was designed to measure individual differences in

A) self-esteem and competition.

B) relational interdependence.

C) self-esteem.

D) private and public self-consciousness.

E) cooperation and competition.

Answer: B

Type: MC Page Ref: 110-112;114 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

14) According to the text, research on self-concept that has asked participants to complete the sentence, “I am….” has revealed that

A) across all cultures, women are more likely to describe themselves in relational terms, such as, “I am a good friend.”

B) whether or not gender differences in self-concept are found in a particular culture depends on whether or not the culture is collectivist or individualistic.

C) compared to men, women in all cultures place a higher value on trust and respect in intimate relationships.

D) generally, there are no gender differences in responses across all cultures.

E) in all cultures, men are more likely to describe themselves in terms of individual attributes, such as “I am responsible.”

Answer: B

Type: MC Page Ref: 113 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

15) In the United States, women are more likely to have an interdependent view of themselves and men to have an independent view of themselves. These gender differences suggest

A) our sense of self is determined by biological factors.

B) gender, like culture, can influence our sense of ourselves.

C) there is little overlap in the psychological makeup of men and women.

D) women in the United States have the same sense of self as people living in Eastern cultures.

E) gender has little impact on our sense of self.

Answer: B

Type: MC Page Ref: 113 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Moderate

16) If you are a person who gives a great deal of priority to close relationships as part of your sense of self, then you probably score high on measures of

A) relational interdependence.

B) self monitoring.

C) collective interdependence.

D) gender differences.

E) self-concept clarity.

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 113 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

17) According to Gabriel and Gardner’s (1999) research on collective versus relational interdependence, which of the following discussions of emotional events is most likely?

A) Steve talks about the time he and his team won the provincial curling championship.

B) Tara talks about how she and her graduating class were affected by a 6-week teachers’ strike.

C) Erin describes how she and her fellow hockey fans felt after her team’s Stanley Cup win.

D) William describes how he felt after a major car accident.

E) Daniel talks about how he and his younger brother reacted when their 52-year-old dad died of a heart attack.

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 113 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Moderate

18) _______ refers to the process of looking inward and examining our thoughts, feelings, and motives.

A) Self-enhancement

B) Self-awareness

C) Self-examination

D) Self-efficacy

E) Introspection

Answer: E

Type: MC Page Ref: 113 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

19) According to the authors of your text, introspection is not a useful source of information about the self because people

A) are driven by unconscious self-enhancing motives.

B) are quite accurate in understanding their own behaviours.

C) cannot be at once the observer and the object observed.

D) actually spend very little time thinking about themselves.

E) know that introspection uses up valuable cognitive resources.

Answer: D

Type: MC Page Ref: 113 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Moderate

20) When we are in a state of _______, we evaluate or compare our current behaviour against our internal standards and values.

A) self-centeredness,

B) self-awareness,

C) distraction,

D) self-perception,

E) self-focus,

Answer: B

Type: MC Page Ref: 114-116 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

21) Jake and Zeke are standing at the counter of the convenience store, and Jake, who has just failed his psychology exam, is animatedly telling Zeke that the exam was unfair and that his professor is unreasonable. As he takes his change, Jake sees his image on the security camera. This causes him to wonder whether he actually studied enough for the exam. Jake’s self-scrutiny in this situation would be predicted by

A) self-perception theory.

B) self-esteem theory.

C) self-disclosure theory.

D) self-awareness theory.

E) self-verification theory.

Answer: D

Type: MC Page Ref: 114-116 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

22) It is Halloween, but you don’t want to be running back and forth to answer the door. To avoid any “tricks,” you decide to leave a large container of candy on the porch. You’ve just read Chapter 5 and you have a hunch about how to keep greedy trick-or-treaters from taking more than their fair share of the candy. You decide to

A) set up a tape-recorder of Barney the Dinosaur singing “I love you, you love me….”

B) install a one-way mirror to catch and punish offenders, and to make an example of them.

C) place a large mirror behind the candy, so that children can see themselves as they approach.

D) place a picture of the Wicked Witch of the West behind the candy, to warn them what will happen if they take too much.

E) place a sign beside the candy politely asking each trick-or-treater to have only one piece of candy.

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 114-116 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

23) According to self-awareness theory, under which of the following circumstances would an individual be most highly motivated to avoid self-awareness?

A) while reading an engaging novel

B) while helping a friend with her homework

C) after giving a successful presentation

D) while watching an interesting documentary on television

E) directly after receiving a low grade on an important test

Answer: E

Type: MC Page Ref: 114-116 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

24) As Tiffany brushes her teeth, she’s thinking about a fight she had the night before with her best friend. She lost her temper and screamed and cursed. Tiffany becomes self-aware when she catches her reflection in the bathroom mirror. She feels uncomfortable, thinking about her behaviour. According to self-awareness theory, what is Tiffany most likely to do?

A) call her friend to apologize

B) distract herself by scouring the sink

C) decide to ignore her friend

D) punish herself by refusing to floss

E) justify her actions by blaming her friend

Answer: B

Type: MC Page Ref: 114-116 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

25) If a self-awareness theorist were to design a department store that would discourage shoplifting, what would he or she do?

A) provide rewards to shoppers who report shoplifters

B) post signs that say, “Shoplifters will be prosecuted to the fullest extent of the law”

C) place mirrors near merchandise that is likely to be stolen

D) lower prices on the merchandise

E) hire more undercover security

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 114-116 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

26) According to self-awareness theory, how might therapists help clients learn more about themselves? Therapists might

A) repeat back to clients what the clients have said.

B) use a sliding scale, but make every client pay something for therapy.

C) challenge self-serving statements to make clients more self-aware.

D) arrange the room so that clients can see themselves in the mirror.

E) hypnotize the subject and allow them to speak freely.

Answer: D

Type: MC Page Ref: 114-116 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

27) From the perspective of self-awareness theory, alcohol abuse, binge eating, and suicide are alike in that they

A) enable people who feel guilty to punish themselves.

B) are coping mechanisms used by people with low self-esteem.

C) make long-term self-focus impossible.

D) provide temporary or permanent relief from unpleasant self-awareness.

E) make self-focus aversive or unpleasant.

Answer: D

Type: MC Page Ref: 114-116 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

28) Jason and Kurt return to their residence after participating in a debating tournament. After viewing their results, Jason was disappointed in his ranking and realized he could have scored higher if he had spent more time preparing. Kurt was pleased with his results and felt that his preparation and effort paid off. Both have to complete paperwork for applications and travel subsidies due tomorrow for their next competition. According to recent research by Moskalenko and Heine on the consequences of self-awareness, what behaviour would be most probable for Jason and Kurt?

A) Jason goes to his room to meditate and Kurt goes to his room to complete his paperwork.

B) Both Kurt and Jason are strongly motivated to relax in the T.V. lounge.

C) Kurt goes to his room to complete the paperwork and Jason goes to the lounge to watch T.V.

D) Both Kurt and Jason go to their rooms to complete their paperwork.

E) Jason goes to his room to complete the paperwork and Kurt goes to the lounge to watch T.V.

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 115 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

29) The authors of your text discussed a study where American and Japanese students were asked questions about their actual and their ideal selves. Participants were either in front of a mirror or not. What were the results of the study?

A) All participants rated their actual selves closer to their ideal selves when talking to a friend.

B) All participants rated their actual selves closer to their ideal selves when in front of a mirror.

C) The mirror influence Japanese students’ ratings, but not those of American students.

D) The mirror influenced American students’ ratings, but not those of Japanese students.

E) All participants rated the gap between their actual and ideal selves as having increased when in front of a mirror.

Answer: D

Type: MC Page Ref: 116 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

30) In a study conducted by Heine and his colleagues (2008) in which participants completed questions about actual/ideal self discrepancies, _____________ reported similar levels of discrepancy regardless of whether they were in front of a mirror or not.

A) American participants

B) females

C) Japanese participants

D) males

E) those high in independence

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 116 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

31) The authors of your text suggest that East Asians’ self-awareness tends to be influenced less by the presence of mirrors or video cameras than Westerners because

A) they pay less attention to contextual cues.

B) they only pay attention to social cues, not physical ones.

C) they tend to be more chronically self-aware.

D) they pay greater attention to inner feelings.

E) they are less concerned with their appearance.

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 116 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

32) Heine and his colleagues (2008) compared East Asian and Western participants in levels of actual/ideal self-discrepancy when they were seated in front of a mirror to complete a questionnaire. Based on the results of this study, who would you expect to be most self-aware, regardless of whether they were in front of a mirror?

A) Susan, a British woman

B) Tom, a Canadian man

C) Yoshi, a Japanese man

D) Anna, an Australian woman

E) Brad, an American man

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 116 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

33) Based on cross-cultural research, your textbook authors reach the conclusion that Westerners’ sense of self derives from ________, while East Asians’ sense of self derives from ________.

A) looking in the mirror; watching television.

B) cultural training; personal experience.

C) other people; private experience.

D) watching television; looking in the mirror.

E) private experience; other people.

Answer: E

Type: MC Page Ref: 116 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

34) The text concludes that, in terms of self-awareness, East Asians have a(n) ________ perspective whereas Westerners have a(n) ________ perspective.

A) positive; negative

B) outsider; insider

C) submissive; dominant

D) concrete; abstract

E) absolute; relative

Answer: B

Type: MC Page Ref: 116 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

35) In a study by Heine and colleagues, when placed in front of a mirror Canadian students were ________ likely to cheat, while Japanese students were ________ likely to cheat, compared to when there was no mirror present.

A) more; less

B) less; more

C) less; equally

D) equally; less

E) more; equally

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 116 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

36) Compared to being placed in front of a mirror, when Japanese students were NOT in front of a mirror they were

A) more likely to cheat.

B) more dissatisfied with themselves.

C) less dissatisfied with themselves.

D) equally likely to cheat.

E) less likely to cheat.

Answer: D

Type: MC Page Ref: 116 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

37) One evening after work, Barbara arrives home in a very bad mood. Noticing this, her husband, James, asks her why she seems so angry and upset. Barbara hadn’t thought about her mood before James mentioned it, and now she thinks hard about what caused her to be so sullen. She decides that it was because she was hungry and tired and she tells James so. According to theories on introspection, Barbara is _______ her behaviour.

A) denying

B) making an excuse for

C) overjustifying

D) attempting to discount

E) constructing a causal theory about

Answer: E

Type: MC Page Ref: 116-118 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

38) According to the authors of your text, feelings like love or sadness are often difficult to explain because

A) humans are motivated to take other’s feelings into account.

B) environment stimuli override internal signals.

C) humans are incredibly self-serving.

D) they are frequently the result of social interactions.

E) we are unaware of many of our basic mental processes.

Answer: E

Type: MC Page Ref: 116-118 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

39) Tim Wilson, Pat Laser, and Julie Stone (1982) asked participants to keep journals of their daily moods and of other variables, such as the weather and how much sleep they got the night before. When asked, many participants reported the amount of sleep the night before was correlated with their moods. When information recorded in the journals was subjected to more systematic statistical analysis, it was found that amount of sleep was not related to participants’ self-reported moods. This is most likely because participants

A) under-reported the amount of sleep they actually got.

B) were in a bad mood from having to keep the journal.

C) were distracted (e.g., by loud noise) when they wrote in their journals.

D) relied on causal theories about the relation between mood and sleep.

E) did not keep accurate journals.

Answer: D

Type: MC Page Ref: 116-118 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

40) The authors of your text described a study in which university students kept track of their moods in daily diaries. The results of this study suggest that

A) introspection is an unreliable source of data.

B) people have a great deal of difficulty constructing plausible explanations for their moods.

C) people can fairly accurately identify the causes of their moods.

D) people can accurately predict how their moods will influence their behaviour.

E) if you expect something to influence your mood, your expectation will become “self-fulfilled.”

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 116-118 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Moderate

41) Richard Nisbett and Tim Wilson (1977) had participants watch a film either with or without distracting noises in the background. Results of their experiment demonstrated that

A) participants had highly accurate perceptions about the effect of distracting noises.

B) participants did not enjoy the film if they were distracted by background noise.

C) background noise had a huge effect on the ratings of the film.

D) participants were unable to concentrate on the film.

E) participants erroneously believed that noise affected their evaluations of the film.

Answer: E

Type: MC Page Ref: 116-118 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

42) The authors of your text described the history behind a clever experiment conducted by Richard Nisbett and Tim Wilson (1977). Lacking inspiration when trying to design the experiment, the researchers decided that noise outside their office door was distracting them. They decided to use noise as a distraction in their experiment and predicted that distracting noises would influence participants’ judgments, even though they didn’t know they were distracted by the noise. Results of the actual experiment showed that although participants’ ratings of a film were not affected by distracting noises, participants erroneously thought they were. This anecdote provided by your authors demonstrates that

A) it is often difficult to show a causal relationship.

B) researchers and participants sometimes share incorrect causal theories.

C) Richard Nisbett knows how to operate a power saw.

D) people often know more about the causes of their behaviours than they can explain to researchers.

E) noise is not distracting enough in social psychology experiments.

Answer: B

Type: MC Page Ref: 116-118 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

43) Self-perception theory argues that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states

A) through introspection.

B) by observing our behaviour and the situation in which it occurs.

C) altering our self-schema.

D) by observing the behaviour of others in the same situation.

E) carefully considering all the variables involved.

Answer: B

Type: MC Page Ref: 116-118 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

44) According to self-perception theory, if you are not sure how much you like classical music, you are likely to

A) engage in introspection.

B) observe your own behaviour to figure it out.

C) observe how much your friends like classical music.

D) make a decision based on other people’s opinions of classical music.

E) seek confirmation of your self-concept.

Answer: B

Type: MC Page Ref: 116-118 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

45) Rosa feels depressed. Although she had hoped to graduate at the head of her class, her current GPA makes that impossible now. This example best illustrates what happens when

A) the actual self falls short when we compare ourselves with others.

B) we possess unrealistically high self-esteem.

C) the actual self falls short of the ideal self.

D) we set our aspirations too high.

E) we fall short of our goals.

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 116; 124-127 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Difficult

46) _______ theory posits that when our attitudes or feelings are ambiguous, we infer our internal states by observing our own behaviours and the situation in which they occur.

A) Self-enhancement

B) Introspection

C) Self-perception

D) Impression management

E) Self-verification

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 118 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

47) A basic tenet of self-perception theory is that we infer our feelings from our behaviour when

A) the reasons for our attitudes or feelings are clear.

B) the reasons for our attitudes or feelings are ambiguous.

C) we think about how others perceive us.

D) we are in a negative mood state.

E) we can easily identify external reasons for our feelings.

Answer: B

Type: MC Page Ref: 118 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

48) Self-perception theory argues that when our attitudes or feelings aren’t clear, we often infer them by observing

A) how other people are behaving.

B) how we feel.

C) our own behaviour.

D) our emotional reactions.

E) others’ reactions to us.

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 118 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

49) Lisa is most likely to conclude that she likes classical music when

A) she cannot pick up other stations on her car radio.

B) she has preset her car radio to a classical music station.

C) the car radio is broken, stuck on the classical music station, and she cannot change stations.

D) her husband chooses the stations on the car radio.

E) she takes a free classical music sampler from a record store.

Answer: B

Type: MC Page Ref: 118 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

50) According to self-perception theory (Bem, 1972), we infer the kind of person we are and what our attitudes are by

A) carefully considering our emotions.

B) engaging in introspection about the reasons for our behaviours.

C) looking to others to see how they respond to us.

D) observing our own behaviours, just as we would observe other’s.

E) comparing our behaviours to our internal values and standards.

Answer: D

Type: MC Page Ref: 118 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

51) When asked to explain our own behaviours, self-perception processes are more likely to operate when our feelings are _______ and when we _______.

A) clear; list the reasons for those feelings.

B) clear; freely chose our behaviour.

C) weak or unclear; freely chose our behaviour.

D) weak or unclear; list the reasons for those feelings.

E) clear; engage in introspection.

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 118 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

52) While completing a personality test, Craig comes to an item that asks him if he sees himself as shy and introverted. Craig reflects on some of his recent behaviour. He reasons that since he generally does not talk much in class discussions and tends to avoid large parties, he must be shy and introverted. Which of the following strategies for self-knowledge is Craig using?

A) self-presentation

B) self-awareness

C) self-perception

D) self-verification

E) self-monitoring

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 118 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

53) Daryl Bem (1972) argues that people are most likely to engage in self-perception when their feelings are _______ and they cannot make a(n) _______ attribution for their behaviour.

A) specific; internal

B) specific; causal

C) specific; external

D) vague; external

E) vague; internal

Answer: D

Type: MC Page Ref: 118 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

54) According to the tenets of self-perception theory, which of the following audience members would report that he or she really loved the taping of The Late Show with David Letterman?

A) Debra, whose friends nudged her to get her to applaud

B) Tim, who sat right in front of the flashing “applause” sign

C) Frank, who received free tickets

D) Julie, who could see that Dave was looking at her

E) André, whose hands stung from clapping so much

Answer: E

Type: MC Page Ref: 118 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Moderate

55) Simone runs simply because it gives her pleasure to exercise outside and to leave her daily worries behind as she works up a sweat. In this instance, Simone is _______ to run.

A) intrinsically motivated

B) generating a reason

C) justifying her desire

D) extrinsically motivated

E) causally motivated

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 118-119 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

56) _______ refers to the desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it, not because we expect external rewards.

A) Intrinsic motivation

B) Hedonic motivation

C) The overjustification effect

D) Extrinsic motivation

E) Reward motivation

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 118-119 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

57) _______ refers to the desire to undertake an activity because of external rewards, not because we find it interesting or enjoyable.

A) Social comparison

B) Extrinsic motivation

C) Intrinsic motivation

D) Internal motivation

E) Compliance

Answer: B

Type: MC Page Ref: 118-119 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

58) When athletes and academics are highly intrinsically motivated it affects attitude and behaviour by

A) decreasing enjoyment but increasing performance.

B) decreasing enjoyment and decreasing persistence.

C) increasing enjoyment and increasing persistence.

D) decreasing enjoyment but increasing persistence.

E) increasing enjoyment but decreasing persistence.

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 118-119 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

59) Applied research shows that having a greater amount of intrinsic motivation, as opposed to extrinsic motivation, is associated with all of the following except

A) competitive swimmers’ persistence.

B) high-school students staying longer in school.

C) environmental activism.

D) quality of relationships.

E) reliance on rewards such as money or praise.

Answer: E

Type: MC Page Ref: 118-119 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

60) Persistence, skill development, and willingness to deal with problems is improved when people are

A) high in intrinsic motivation for engaging in the activity.

B) high in extrinsic motivation for engaging in the activity.

C) recipients of task-contingent rewards.

D) denied performance-contingent rewards.

E) denied task-contingent rewards.

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 118-119 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

61) Maurice had always gotten a lot of satisfaction from caring for his brothers and sisters when they were sick. A few months ago, Maurice’s father convinced him to take a job at a hospital as a nurse’s aid so that he could earn money doing what he enjoyed. Now that Maurice has been working at the hospital for awhile, he no longer enjoys caring for sick people as much as he did before he took the job. One reason for Maurice’s attitude change may be that the job has undermined his _______ for helping others.

A) causal motivation

B) intrinsic motivation

C) extrinsic motivation

D) internal justification

E) external justification

Answer: B

Type: MC Page Ref: 118-119 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

62) The principal of a local elementary school plans to implement a “Reading for Cash” program, in which children would be given cash rewards for reading. Before investing in this plan, the principal asks for your assessment. Because ___________, you would probably tell her that the program would not be an effective way to increase interest in reading.

A) cash rewards tend to increase performance on a task

B) any forms of encouragement tend to reduce intrinsic motivation

C) external rewards tend to reduce any inherent intrinsic interest

D) intrinsic interests tend to weaken over time regardless of incentives

E) external rewards tend to increase any inherent intrinsic interest

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 118-119 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

63) Intrinsic motivation is to _______ as extrinsic motivation is to _______.

A) self-perception; introspection.

B) introspection; self-perception.

C) overjustification; underjustification.

D) internal interest; external reward.

E) self-perception; overjustification effect.

Answer: D

Type: MC Page Ref: 118-119 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

64) You assume that Franklin is intrinsically motivated to write a course paper because

A) he seems to savour immersing himself in writing.

B) it is a requirement to pass the course.

C) he wants his professor to write him a letter of recommendation.

D) it will increase his chances of making the Dean’s List.

E) it will help him get a good job.

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 118-119 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

65) Which of the following is most likely to INCREASE intrinsic motivation?

A) performance-contingent rewards

B) large incentives

C) task-contingent rewards

D) introspection

E) self-perception processes

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 120 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

66) According to the authors of your text, _______ explains why providing young children with large rewards for reading (e.g., money or prizes) might actually backfire and convince them that they don’t really like reading as much as they thought at first.

A) intrinsic motivation theory

B) self-perception processes

C) extrinsic motivation theory

D) reason generating attitude change

E) the overjustification effect

Answer: E

Type: MC Page Ref: 120 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

67) According to the authors of your text, extrinsic rewards are most likely to DIMINISH intrinsic motivation when

A) extrinsic motivation was initially high.

B) rewards are given at random.

C) intrinsic motivation was initially high.

D) rewards are performance-contingent.

E) rewards are given on a fixed-ratio schedule.

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 120 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

68) A parent hands her children a dollar each for helping to rake leaves and also says, “And wasn’t it great, all of us pitching in together, helping each other?” By reminding her children that the task was also enjoyable, she is working to

A) avoid the overjustification effect.

B) enhance leaf-raking performance.

C) enhance their extrinsic motivation.

D) undermine their intrinsic motivation.

E) produce the overjustification effect.

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 120 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

69) Performance-contingent rewards depend on how well people perform the task. This type of reward

A) is more likely to decrease interest in a task than task-contingent rewards.

B) is less likely to decrease interest in a task than task-contingent rewards.

C) is subject to the over-justification effect.

D) leads to self-enhancement.

E) is an important part of social comparison theory.

Answer: B

Type: MC Page Ref: 120 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

70) Performance-contingent rewards are a type of

A) self-verification.

B) intrinsic reward.

C) over-justification.

D) task-contingent reward.

E) extrinsic reward.

Answer: E

Type: MC Page Ref: 120 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

71) Which of the following ways of understanding ourselves is social?

A) Keeping a diary to record our behaviours.

B) Using introspection to infer our attitudes.

C) Attending to other people’s opinions of us.

D) Making attributions to explain the causes of our behaviours.

E) Observing our own behaviours to decide how we feel.

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 121-122 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Moderate

72) Our self-concept based on how we appear to others is called

A) looking-glass self.

B) comparative self.

C) introspected self.

D) socially-adjusted self.

E) projected self.

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 121 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

73) In a study described in the text, Baldwin and his colleagues found that graduate students rated their own work more negatively if they were first exposed to a picture of the scowling face of the program director than if they were first exposed to a picture of a smiling colleague. According to the researchers, this occurred because

A) the picture distracted the students during the rating task.

B) the picture caused increased physiological arousal, which, in the case of the picture of the scowling program director, was labelled as fear or anxiety.

C) the picture students were exposed to primed a certain internal audience.

D) the picture of the scowling program director made the students more self-aware.

E) the picture students were exposed to determined whether they engaged in either upward or downward social comparison.

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 121-122 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

74) Which of the following findings is explained by the “looking-glass self” theory of self-concept formation?

A) When we are unsure about our attitudes or feelings, we infer them by observing our behaviour and the situations in which they occur.

B) Students are less likely to cheat on a test when they can see their faces in a mirror.

C) After experiencing a failure, people in a reflective state may cheer themselves up by remembering positive events.

D) People are less likely to steal if there is a camera focused on them.

E) Catholic women rated themselves more negatively after reading a sexually explicit passage if they had first been exposed to a picture of the Pope than if the picture was of an unfamiliar smiling man.

Answer: E

Type: MC Page Ref: 121-122 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Moderate

75) _______ posits that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people.

A) Social comparison theory

B) Self-verification theory

C) Self-perception theory

D) Esteem enhancement theory

E) The notion of the looking glass self

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 122-123 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

76) When there are no objective criteria to measure achievement, people often rely on _______ to evaluate how well they performed.

A) cognitive appraisal processes

B) attribution of arousal

C) social comparison

D) introspection

E) self-perception

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 122-123 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

77) In order to gauge whether he had studied long enough for his psychology exam, Markus phoned two of his classmates to ask them how long they had spent reviewing material. Markus is engaging in

A) social comparison.

B) impression management.

C) self-verification.

D) a self-protective behaviour.

E) self-handicapping.

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 122-123 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

78) The cornerstone of Leon Festinger’s (1954) social comparison theory is that people

A) may examine their opinions and abilities by evaluating themselves relative to others.

B) prefer subjective feedback to objective feedback.

C) are motivated to see themselves in the most positive light.

D) only accept feedback that helps maintain self-esteem.

E) prefer to compare themselves to others more talented or accomplished than they are.

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 122-123 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Moderate

79) According to social psychology research findings, when we engage in social comparison, we are most likely to compare ourselves to

A) experts.

B) people who perform poorly on the task.

C) similar others.

D) whomever is physically closest to us.

E) dissimilar others.

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 122-123 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

80) Mariana wonders whether she has the potential to become a first-rate social psychologist. To assess her potential, she would most likely compare herself to

A) Leon Festinger.

B) other university students she knows.

C) her parents.

D) famous social psychologists whose research she has read.

E) other psychology majors she knows.

Answer: E

Type: MC Page Ref: 122-123 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Moderate

81) What approach suggests that we all have a limited amount of energy to devote to self-control and that using up this energy on one task reduces the amount of self-control that can be used for another task?

Self-verification model

Thought regulation model

Self-inhibitory generation model

Self-regulatory resource model

Resource limitation model

Answer: D

Type: MC Page Ref: 123-124 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

82) Jana’s New Year’s resolution is to train to run a 10km race. She has been doing great, getting up to go on a run at 7am five days a week, including this morning. When she’s headed to work after her run, she gets to the subway station and finds that there is a service disruption. She will have to wait 15 minutes for the next train. Based on the self-control approach, what is most likely to happen?

Jana will sigh, then start reading the book that she brought.

Jana will decide that a walk would be nice and leave the station.

Jana will grumble about the train being late and snap at the person who accidentally steps on her foot.

When she’s on the train, Jana will offer her seat to a senior citizen who gets on at the next stop.

Jana will enjoy some healthy snacks.

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 123-124 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Moderate

83) According to research on social comparison, elderly people feel more life satisfaction when

A) they compare themselves with those who are more physically able.

B) they believe that others have had fewer regrets in life.

C) reminding themselves that others are worse off than they are.

D) they think about all the good things in the world.

E) remembering their own younger years.

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 124-127 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

84) Which of the following people is engaging in upward social comparison?

A) Walter, who decides to exercise more after his friends tell him that he has gained weight

B) Jermaine, who checks the distribution of scores on his final examination

C) Daniel, who feels better when he realizes that rich people pay a lot more in taxes than he does

D) Chet, who checks his stopwatch and vows to run faster next time

E) Toni, who reads William Faulkner and Flannery O’Connor to assess her own writing skills

Answer: E

Type: MC Page Ref: 124-127 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Moderate

85) Gus went golfing last week and shot a score of 85, the best score he has ever shot after years of playing. At work the next day he tells his close friend Arnie about his achievement. Arnie tells Gus that he also went golfing yesterday and shot a score of 72, which is quite a bit better than Gus’ score. According to the research on social comparison processes presented in the text,

A) Gus will be highly motivated to outperform Arnie on any task related to golf.

B) the next time Gus and Arnie golf together, Gus will probably hit Arnie with a 5-iron the minute his back is turned.

C) Gus will be inspired by Arnie’s achievement to practice even harder and become a better player.

D) Gus will become less satisfied with his performance and his motivation to practice will probably be decreased.

E) the next time Gus and Arnie golf together Gus will say that he has been too sick to practice, so that he has a handy excuse for losing.

Answer: D

Type: MC Page Ref: 124-127 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Moderate

86) Upward social comparison is to _______ as downward social comparison is to _______.

A) lower self-esteem; higher self-esteem.

B) self-enhancement.; striving.

C) neutral emotions; positive emotions.

D) positive emotions; negative emotions.

E) self-enhancement; negative emotions.

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 124-127 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

87) When we are motivated to feel good about ourselves, we

A) use self-handicapping.

B) make internal attributions.

C) make external attributions.

D) use downward social comparison.

E) seek self-awareness.

Answer: D

Type: MC Page Ref: 124-127 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

88) Joanne Wood, Shelley Taylor, and Rosemary Lichtman (1985) found that in order to feel more optimistic about their own futures, cancer patients engage in

A) introspection.

B) impression management.

C) reconstructive memory.

D) upward social comparison.

E) downward social comparison.

Answer: E

Type: MC Page Ref: 124 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

89) In which of the following circumstances would we generally feel worse after social comparison?

A) if our ideal self was compared to a very successful person

B) if our usual self was compared to an inspiring person

C) if our current self was compared to our past self

D) if our usual self was compared to a our current self

E) if our usual self was compared to an unsuccessful person

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 124-127 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

90) _______ is who we are, and _______ is our best self.

A) actual self; ideal self

B) actual self; personal self

C) current self; ideal self

D) actual self; ought self

E) personal self; social self

Answer: D

Type: MC Page Ref: 124-127 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Moderate

91) Wilson and Ross have shown that comparing our past self with our current self is

A) a useful technique for boosting self-esteem.

B) a poor technique for impression management.

C) useful for introspection and self-awareness.

D) useful for impression management.

E) a useful technique for recall of autobiographical memories.

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 125 Skill: Recall Difficulty:Easy

92) Which subjects in Tiggeman & Polivy’s (2010) study of the effects of social comparison had the LEAST dissatisfaction with their bodies and LEAST negative mood?

A) subjects who had compared their appearance with that of a thin model

B) subjects who had compared their intelligence with that of a thin model

C) subjects who had compared their height with that of a tall model

D) subjects who had compared their morality with that of a thin model

E) subjects who had compared their appearance with a slim television actress

Answer: B

Type: MC Page Ref: 127 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

93) ______________ posits that self-esteem is a gauge that monitors the extent to which we are accepted or rejected by others.

Self-Awareness Theory

The Looking Glass Self

Self-Perception Theory

Self-Verification Theory

Sociometer Theory

Answer: E

Type: MC Page Ref: 129 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

94) According to sociometer theory, “chronic” self-esteem refers to ________________ whereas “state” self-esteem refers to ________________.

the self-esteem we get from relationships with acquaintances; the self-esteem we get from relationships with close friends

how much we generally feel accepted or rejected; our current feelings of acceptance or rejection in a particular relationship or social situation

the self-esteem we get from relationships with close friends; the self-esteem we get from relationships with acquaintances

our current feelings of acceptance or rejection in a particular relationship or social situation; how much we generally feel accepted or rejected

the self-esteem we get based on whether we are achieving long-term goals; the self-esteem we get from whether we are achieving short-term goals

Answer: B

Type: MC Page Ref: 129 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

95) Bonnie has generally low self-esteem. According to Danu Anthony Stinson’s research on sociometer theory, she will be most willing to join a new social group if

someone in the group tells her that they have heard she has many good qualities and the group expects they will like her.

the group has a reputation for being unwelcoming.

someone in the group tells her that they are unlikely to accept her as a member of the group and she should find someone else to be friends with.

someone in the group tells her that they have heard she is a good person and that they will probably become friends after they have taken the time to get to know each other.

the group has a reputation for being warm and accepting.

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 129-130 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Moderate

96) Holding unrealistically positive views of oneself is called

A) self-affirmation.

B) self-verification.

C) self-completion.

D) self-esteem.

E) self-enhancement.

Answer: E

Type: MC Page Ref: 131 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

97) Surveys of Canadian university students show a tendency for students to think they are _______ most other students.

A) worse off than

B) better than

C) equal to

D) worse than

E) stronger than

Answer: B

Type: MC Page Ref: 131 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

98) Research comparing self-esteem in Canadian versus Eastern Asian cultures finds that

A) Canadian and Chinese students rate themselves more positively than their peers; Japanese students rate themselves more negatively.

B) Canadian, Japanese, and Chinese students all rate themselves less positively than their peers.

C) Canadian, Japanese, and Chinese students all rate themselves more positively than their peers.

D) Canadian students rate themselves more negatively than their peers; Chinese and Japanese students rate themselves more positively.

E) Canadian students rate themselves more positively than their peers; Chinese and Japanese students rate themselves more negatively.

Answer: E

Type: MC Page Ref: 131 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Moderate

99) According to the textbook, self-enhancement is

A) universal.

B) more common in collectivistic cultures.

C) largely a phenomenon of individualistic cultures.

D) more common among women than men.

E) negatively related to psychosocial adjustment.

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 131-133 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

100) Heine, Takata, and Lehman (2000) found that failure feedback 

A) did not affect Canadian students’ positive evaluations of their math skills, but led to self-effacement among Japanese students..

B) led Canadians to engage in upward social comparison, and Japanese students to engage in downward social comparison.

C) led Japanese and Canadian students to engage in downward social comparison equally.

D) led Canadian students to feel worse about their performance, but did not affect Japanese students’ feelings about their math skills.

E) made Japanese and Canadian students feel better about their math skills.

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 131-133 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Moderate

101) Self-enhancement among individuals from Asian cultures

A) doesn’t seem to occur.

B) happens when speaking about themselves.

C) happens when speaking about their families but not themselves.

D) happens when speaking about themselves and their families.

E) happens when speaking about their themselves and only close family members.

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 131-132 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

102) Ken is a Chinese-Canadian graduate student who has lived in Canada for 10 years. He is given a questionnaire on aspects of the self similar to one used by Ross, Xun, and Wilson (2002). What is the most likely outcome? Ken is _______ when answering the questionnaire in Chinese and _______ when answering in English.

A) self-effacing; self-effacing

B) self-enhancing; self-aware

C) self-effacing; self-enhancing

D) self-enhancing; self enhancing

E) self-enhancing; self-effacing

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 132 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

103) Which of the following theories posits that people may go to great lengths to confirm negative self-views?

A) self-verification theory

B) self-completion theory

C) self-awareness theory

D) self-affirmation theory

E) self-discrepancy theory

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 133-134 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Moderate

104) _______ theory holds that people have a need to seek confirmation of their self-concepts, even at the expense of self-enhancement.

A) Self-verification

B) Self-awareness

C) Self-completion

D) Self-affirmation

E) Self-justification

Answer: A

Type: MC Page Ref: 133 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

105) Kate knows that she isn’t as organized as she’d like to be. One day, Jim, a guy she’s been dating for a number of months, says to her, “Wow, Kate. You always seem to have it all together. You’re so organized!” What theory explains why Kate would be unhappy about Jim’s statement?

A) self-evaluation maintenance theory

B) self-affirmation theory

C) cognitive dissonance theory

D) self-perception theory

E) self-verification theory

Answer: E

Type: MC Page Ref: 133-134 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

106) People strive to uphold their negative self-beliefs only when they

A) have high self-esteem.

B) are uncertain of those beliefs.

C) are highly certain of those beliefs.

D) become self-protective, and self-justification is inevitable.

E) are focused on maintaining the self-esteem of close friends and family.

Answer: C

Type: MC Page Ref: 133-134 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

107) According to self-verification theory, the need to self-verify will dominate our behaviour when

A) we are uncertain of our self-beliefs.

B) we are highly certain of our self-beliefs.

C) the consequences of being improperly evaluated are great.

D) our evaluator is someone we don’t know very well.

E) we feel we can improve our abilities.

Answer: B

Type: MC Page Ref: 133-134 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

108) Most of us conceive of the self as an inherent part of who we are, constant, coherent, and stable. Still, social psychologists view the self as constructed over time. Briefly describe how early life experiences, culture, and gender influence this development or construction of our sense of self.

Answer: 

Our sense of self originates around the age of two years and gradually develops and changes as we age, starting as relatively concrete (e.g., physical characteristics) and becoming more and more abstract (e.g., our thoughts and feelings). Culture also influences our sense of self. In independent Western cultures, our sense of self is individualistic, focusing on our own thoughts, feelings, and actions; in interdependent Eastern cultures, our sense of self is more relational, focusing on how one’s self is influenced by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others. Gender also affects our sense of self. In North America, women are more likely to have an interdependent view of the self, whereas men are more likely to have an independent view. In collectivist cultures both men and women have interdependent or relational views of the self.

Type: ES Page Ref: 108-113 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Moderate

109) Briefly describe the tenets of self-awareness theory and explain some cognitive and behavioural consequences of self-awareness.

Answer: 

Self-awareness theory posits that when we focus on ourselves, we evaluate and compare our current behaviour against our personal values and standards. When we can bring our behaviours into line with our internal values, we will. When, however, we do not or cannot bring our behaviours into line with our internal standards, we will experience discomfort, and stop being self-aware as quickly as possible (e.g., turning away from a mirror, watching television, or even escaping the self via drugs or suicide).

Type: ES Page Ref: 114-116 Skill: Recall Difficulty; Easy

110) You are sitting at the mall, gossiping with a friend about a mutual acquaintance. You suddenly catch sight of yourself on a security camera. According to self-awareness theory, what is likely to happen in this case?

Answer: 

You will become self-aware when you see your image. You will then become aware of your internal values and standards, and will become aware of the extent to which gossiping about an acquaintance is compatible with your values. If you decide that gossiping is not compatible with your values, self-awareness will make you feel uncomfortable. If you do not stop gossiping, you will seek a way to reduce your self-awareness, perhaps by leaving that spot.

Type: ES Page Ref: 114-116 Skill:Applied Difficulty: Easy

111) Describe how a self-perception theorist would explain how you come to decide whether you really like your new roommate.

Answer: 

A self-perception theorist would first note that self-perception processes operate when we are unsure of our initial feelings or attitudes towards something new. When we are unsure about how we really feel, we will look to the environment and to our own behaviour to decide. For example, we may reflect on our behaviour the last time we were around our roommate. Did we laugh? Did we do any favours for her? Did we compliment her? We would also look to the situation to determine whether situational factors (e.g., rewards) might have influenced our behaviours. If so, we might decide that it was the situation and not our true feelings that influenced our behaviour.

Type: ES Page Ref: 118-120 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

112) When Linda was a child, her friends at school all earned a lot of money if their grades were good. Linda went to her parents and asked that she be given money for good report cards. Her parents agreed. She would earn a nickel for every “A” and a dollar if she earned “all A’s.” Her friends, of course, were offered much more money for good grades. Using self-perception theory and the overjustification effect, explain why Linda’s parents might have offered her such meager monetary rewards for academic success.

Answer: 

Self-perception theory posits that when we are unsure of our attitudes, we look to our own behaviours and to the environment to decide how we feel. This example is a special case of working to increase intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation to learn and excel. Linda’s parents were careful not to provide excessive external rewards because such rewards might convince Linda that the reason she was working hard in school was to earn money. Instead, they provided meager rewards so that Linda would come to believe that she worked hard in school because she liked it and viewed it as worthwhile; in other words, she would become intrinsically motivated to succeed.

Type: ES Page Ref: 118-120 Skill: Applied Difficulty: Easy

113) Many social psychologists assert that much of our sense of self arises from our interactions with our observations of others—in effect, the self is social. How does Leon Festinger’s social comparison theory fit this conceptualization of self?

Answer: 

Social comparison theory posits that we are motivated to evaluate ourselves, our attitudes, and our abilities. Sometimes the nonsocial environment doesn’t provide enough information (i.e., objective criteria) to afford these evaluations. When this happens, we often turn to others to evaluate our own abilities—we engage in social comparison. We are most likely to compare ourselves to others when there are no objective standards and when we are unsure of some self-aspects. We are likely to compare ourselves with others who are similar to ourselves on the attribute or dimension in question.

Type: ES Page Ref: 122-123 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

114) Describe the differences between downward and upward social comparison. How do they influence our sense of self?

Answer: 

Downward social comparison is the process whereby we compare ourselves with people who are worse than we are on a particular trait or ability. Upward social comparison is the process whereby we compare ourselves with people who are better than we are on a particular trait or ability. Downward social comparison can make people feel more satisfied with their life, while upwards social comparison can make us feel bad and incompetent compared to others, but can also have positive effects and motivate us to pursue our dreams if we feel like we can achieve the level of performance that the other person has.

Type: ES Page Ref: 124-127 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

115) Is self-enhancement culturally specific? Remember to define self-enhancement and summarize research exploring cultural differences in this tendency.

Answer: 

Research shows that a tendency to self-enhance, to have an unrealistically positive view of the self, is largely shown in individualistic, Western cultures. In East Asian cultures there is a greater tendency to show self-effacement and self-criticism. People from Asian cultures tend to evaluate themselves lower than their peers on many dimensions of comparison, score lower than North Americans on measures of self-esteem, and are quicker to accept feedback about failure than feedback about success. This cultural difference does not appear to be due merely to a self-presentation bias on the part of East Asians.

Type: ES Page Ref: 131-133 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Easy

116) Why might a person wish for feedback that confirms his or her negative self-concept? Discuss the self-verification theory perspective.

Answer: 

Self-verification theory suggests that we are motivated to know the truth about ourselves, even if that truth is verification of our own negative self-concept. This is because that will help to maintain a coherent self-concept over time and it may be threatening if others have (what we think of as) an unrealistically high expectations of us that we cannot meet.

However, the tendency to seek self-verification over self-enhancement does depend on the dimension of the self that is being evaluated and our relationship with the evaluator. We prefer enhancement of the dimension of the self that is most relevant or important to the relationship with the evaluator (e.g., physical attractiveness in a dating relationship), but accuracy on other dimensions.

Type: ES Page Ref: 133-134 Skill: Recall Difficulty: Moderate

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