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CHAPTER 5: Classical Conditioning:
Underlying Processes and Practical Applications
Chapter Outline
Underlying Processes in Classical Conditioning
S-S Versus S-R Learning
Stimulus-Substitution Versus Preparatory-Response Theory
Compensatory-Response Model
Rescorla-Wagner Theory
Practical Applications of Classical Conditioning
Understanding Phobias
Treating Phobias
Aversion Therapy for Eliminating Problem Behaviors
Medical Applications of Classical Conditioning
Explanation of Opening Scenario
Estella should be concerned. In keeping with the compensatory-response theory of conditioning, because Juan had no awareness that he was drinking alcohol (meaning that this type of alcohol-related cue was absent), he may have experienced little in the way of conditioned compensatory processes to counteract the effects of the alcohol. This means that the alcohol Juan drank may have had a much stronger effect on him than if he had been aware of the alcohol. (Other cues, however, may have remained. For example, in Juan’s past experience, did punch typically contain alcohol and were picnics usually associated with drinking? If so, then compensatory processes to the alcohol may have automatically been elicited by these cues, despite his belief that the punch was nonalcoholic.)
Dr. Dee Assignment (See Chapter 1 in this manual for a sample set of instructions.)
I. Dear Dr. Dee,
I’m still attracted to my old girlfriend, even though I know she’s no good for me. What can I do to get over her?
Still a sucker
II. Dear Dr. Dee,
Although I’ve always been a bit fearful of getting too close to men, it seems like this has gotten much worse lately. But I don’t understand why. Other than the fact that I’ve been rather ill over the past few months, nothing else has changed in my life. What gives?
Mandy Mono
Relevant concepts:
I. He could try some aversive conditioning on himself, including covert conditioning, in which he attempts to associate her memory with unpleasant stimuli (p 209). On the other hand, if his reactions are a result of ‘withdrawal’ from the relationship, then eventually his response will extinguish (p 191).
II. A process of selective sensitization (p 200) brought on by her illness could account for the sudden exacerbation of her relationship fears.
Internet Resources
Rescorla Wagner Model: http://users.ipfw.edu/abbott/314/Rescorla2.htm
At this site, you will find a more involved presentation of the Rescorla-Wagner model than what is presented in the book.
“Conditioned Emotional Reactions” by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920): http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/emotion.htm
This is the famous article describing the process of fear conditioning in Little Albert. (From York University Classics in the History of Psychology.)
“A Laboratory Study of Fear: The Case of Peter” by Mary Cover Jones (1924):
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Jones/
The original article on the use of counterconditioning to treat a phobia in a young boy. (From York University Classics in the History of Psychology.) See also introduction below.
Introduction to “A Laboratory Study of Fear: The Case of Peter” by Mary Cover Jones: (1924) http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Jones/intro.htm
An introduction to Jones’s classic study, written by Alexandra Rutherford of York University. (From York University Classics in the History of Psychology.)
Self-administered systematic desensitization: http://www.guidetopsychology.com/sysden.htm
This site provides a guide to the self-administration of systematic desensitization.
Suggested Readings
Domjan, M. (2003). The principles of learning and behavior (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Lieberman, D. A. (2000). Learning: Behavior and cognition (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Miltenberger, R. G. (1997). Behavior modification: Principles and procedures. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Pavlov, I. P. (1941). Conditioned reflexes and psychiatry. (W. H. Gantt, Trans.). New York: International Publishers.
Rachman, S. (1977). The conditioning theory of fear-acquisition: A critical examination. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 15, 375–387.
Rescorla, R. A., & Wagner, A. R. (1972). A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement. In A. H. Black & W. F. Prokasy (Eds.), Classical conditioning II: Current research and theory. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Seligman, M. E. P. (1971). Phobias and preparedness. Behavior Therapy, 2, 307–320.
Siegel, S. (1983). Classical conditioning, drug tolerance, and drug dependence. In R. G. Smart, F. B. Glaser, Y. Israel, H. Kalant, R. E. Popham, & W. Schmidt (Eds.), Research advances in alcohol and drug problems (Vol. 7). New York: Plenum Press.
Siegel, S. (1984). Pavlovian conditioning and heroin overdose: Reports by overdose victims. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 22, 428–430.
Siegel, S. (2002). Explanatory mechanisms for placebo effects: Pavlovian conditioning. In H. A. Guess, A.
Kleinman, J. W. Kusek, & L. W. Engel (Eds.), The science of the placebo: Toward an interdisciplinary research agenda. New York: BMJ Books.
Spiegler, M. D., & Guevremont, D. C. (1998). Contemporary behavior therapy (3rd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 3, 1–14.
Wolpe, J. (1958). Psychotherapy by reciprocal inhibition. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Wolpe, J. (1995). Reciprocal inhibition: Major agent of behavior change. In W. O’Donohue & L. Krasner (Eds.), Theories of behavior therapy: Exploring behavior change. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Answers to Quick Quiz Items
Quick Quiz A
1. S-R
2. S-S
3. S-S
Quick Quiz B
1. stimulus-substitution
2. preparatory response
3. stimulus-substitution; false
Quick Quiz C
1. compensatory-response; the primary response to a drug; compensatory
2. a-process; b-process
3. Needle: effect of heroin (drop in BP) increase in BP
NS US UR
Needle increase in BP
CS CR
4. US; UR
5. US; UR
6. Tone: increase in HR decrease in HR
NS US UR
Tone decrease in HR
CS CR
Quick Quiz D
1. stronger; compensatory
2. exposure; extinction
3. higher
4. increased
5. less
Quick Quiz E
1. US; CSs
2. more
3. most
4. CS
5. 10
6. decrease; overexpectation
Quick Quiz F
1. overgeneralization
2. neutral; unconditioned
3. unconditioned; conditioned
4. only one
5. weaker
6. absent; weak
Quick Quiz G
1. unconditioned; unconditioned; conditioned; conditioned
2. temperament; does
3. preparedness
4. temperament
5. preparedness
Quick Quiz H
1. more
2. incubation; stronger; extinction
3. US; more; US; observational learning; verbally
4. selective sensitization; unrelated
Quick Quiz I
1. counterconditioning; reciprocal inhibition; incompatible; inhibits
2. food; systematic desensitization; relaxation
3. training in relaxation; creation of a fear hierarchy; pairing each item in the hierarchy with relaxation
4. in vivo desensitization; generalize
5. few; specific; does not
6. is not; severe
Quick Quiz J
1. blocked; extinguish
2. imaginal; in vivo
3. long
4. exposure-based
5. systematic desensitization; flooding; participant modeling
Quick Quiz K
1. aversion
2. nausea; emetic
3. rapid smoking
4. more
5. imaginal; covert
Quick Quiz L
1. dog: dander —> asthma
NS1 US UR
dog —> asthma
CS1 CR
food dish: dog —> asthma
NS2 CS1 CR
food dish —> asthma
CS2 CR
2. Flavored water: Drug —> Immunosuppression
NSUSUR
Flavored water —> Immunosuppression
CSCR
3. following; reduce; extinction
Answers to Study Question Items: See short-answer test items in the test bank.
Test Bank for Chapter 5
Underlying Processes in Classical Conditioning
S-R versus S-S Learning
According to the S-R model of conditioning, the
NS becomes associated with the US.
the CR becomes associated with the US.
the UR becomes associated with the NS.
the NR becomes associated with the CS.
C 175
According to the S-R model of conditioning, the CS should elicit
a preparatory response.
an anticipatory response.
the same response as the UR.
a different response from the UR.
C 175 QZ
According to the S-S model of conditioning,
the NS becomes associated with the US.
the CR becomes associated with the US.
the UR becomes associated with the NS.
the CR becomes associated with the CS.
A 175
According to the S-S model of conditioning, the CS should elicit
a response that is different from the UR.
a response that is identical to the UR.
a response that is similar to the UR.
a response that is somehow related to the US.
D 175 WWW
Suzie once encountered a snake in the woods near town, and as a result developed a strong fear of those woods. Later, however, she learned that there are no snakes in those woods, and that what she thought was a snake must have instead been a branch lying on the ground. As a result, she immediately lost her fear of the woods. This suggests that Suzie’s fear of the woods must have been based on an ____ association.
S-R
S-S
R-S
R-R
B 175
Suzie once encountered a snake in the woods near town, and as a result developed a strong fear of those woods. Later, however, she learned that there are no snakes in those woods, and that what she thought was a snake must have instead been a branch lying on the ground. If her fear reaction was based on an ____ association, then her fear of the woods should now ____.
S-S; remain unchanged
S-R; decrease
S-R; remain unchanged
both a and b are true
C 175 MD
Stimulus-Substitution versus Preparatory-Response Theory
According to Pavlov’s stimulus-substitution theory, the ____ acts as a substitute for the ____.
CS; NS
CS; US
US; CS
NS; US
B 176-177
According to Pavlov’s stimulus-substitution theory, the dog salivates to the sound of a metronome because
the metronome acts as a substitute for the food.
the food acts as a substitute for the metronome.
the dog anticipates that it will soon receive food.
the dog has become sensitized to the metronome.
A 176-177
According to ____ theory, the CR should be quite similar to the UR.
stimulus-stimulus
stimulus-substitution
Rescorla-Wagner
preparatory response
B 176-177 FN
Pavlov’s stimulus-substitution theory is an example of a(n)
S-S model.
S-R model.
compensatory-response model.
preparatory response model.
A 176-177
A man with a shoe fetish spends considerable time obtaining women’s shoes. This behavior is most easily explained by which theory of conditioning?
compensatory response theory
preparatory response theory
stimulus-substitution
compensatory-substitution theory
C 176-177 QZ
Pavlov believed that the process of pairing an NS with a US resulted in the formation of a neural connection between
different reflex arcs within the spinal cord.
different areas in the cortex that are activated by each type of stimulus.
cortex and thalamus.
sensory and motor regions of the cortex.
B 177
The major difficulty with Pavlov’s stimulus-substitution theory is that the ____ are sometimes quite ____.
CR and UR; similar
CR and UR; different
CS and US; similar
CS and US; different
B 178
According to the preparatory-response theory of conditioning, the purpose of the ____ is to enable the organism to get ready for the ____.
NS; US
CR; US
UR; US
CR; CS
B 178
The fact that a rat’s fear response to an aversive CS is likely to be quite ____ its response to the aversive US is best explained by ____.
similar to; opponent process theory
different from; the S-R theory
different from, preparatory response theory
similar to; stimulus-substitution theory
C 178 QZ
Classical conditioning of compensatory responses provides evidence for which of the following theories of conditioning?
R-S
S-R
stimulus-substitution theory
preparatory-response theory
D 178 WWW
In support of the preparatory-response theory of conditioning,
the CS is usually quite different from the US.
the CS is often quite similar to the US.
the CR and UR are often quite similar.
the CR can sometimes be quite different from the UR.
D 178
Compensatory-Response Model
According to the compensatory-response model of drug tolerance, in a conditioning trial in which cues are paired with drug administration, the US is ______________ and the UR is ________________.
the primary effect of the drug on the body; the compensatory response to the primary effect
the sight of the drug; the physiological reaction to the drug
the b-process; the a-process
the compensatory response to the drug; the primary drug effect
> A 179
If the primary effect of a drug is to increase heart rate, the UR in a drug conditioning trial is
decrease in heart rate.
increase in heart rate.
a placebo effect.
a further increase in heart rate.
> A 179
One of the primary effects of amphetamine is an increase in heart rate. According to the compensatory-response model, in a drug conditioning trial the US would be ______________ and the UR would be _______________.
decrease in heart rate; increase in heart rate
increase in heart rate; increase in heart rate
increase in heart rate; decrease in heart rate
decrease in heart rate; decrease in heart rate
> C 179
The average person would likely become most intoxicated by drinking alcohol
in a favorite lounge or bar.
at a loud, noisy party.
at a small, quiet party.
while taking a shower.
D 182
Given that each drink contains the same amount of alcohol and that you drink each drink at the same rate, you will likely become most drunk if you are drinking a(n) ____ drink.
sweet
bitter
familiar
unfamiliar
D 182
According to the compensatory-response model of conditioning (and assuming that it applies to situations such as these), a couple that has been married for many years would be most aroused if they made love
in a brightly colored hotel room.
in a strange hotel room.
in their bedroom.
during a hangover from alcohol.
B 182 WWW MD
According to the compensatory-response model of conditioning, if a certain drug has a tendency to increase blood pressure, then just being in an environment associated with taking the drug may
decrease blood pressure.
stabilize blood pressure.
further increase blood pressure.
cause wide fluctuations in blood pressure.
A 182
The compensatory-response model of conditioning predicts that it will be easier for someone to quit smoking
gradually.
suddenly.
in a smoking-related environment.
in an environment not related to smoking.
D 182 FN
According to the compensatory-response model of conditioning (and assuming that it is relevant to relationships), it would be easier to go through a marriage break-up
if you were married for a long time.
while drunk.
if you moved to a different apartment from where you had lived with your former partner.
if you stayed in the same apartment that you had lived in with your partner.
C182
In contradiction to the compensatory-response model of conditioning, the CSs for some drugs elicit reactions that
mimic the effect of the drug.
reduce the effect of the drug.
are the opposite of the effect of the drug.
both b and c.
A 183
And Furthermore: Conditioned Compensatory Responses and Drug Overdose
In keeping with the ____ model of conditioning, many drug fatalities occur when the person injects a normal dosage of the drug in a(n) ____ environment.
S-S; familiar
compensatory-response; unfamiliar
compensatory-response; familiar
S-R; unfamiliar
B 183
There are multiple reports of drug overdoses where the individual overdoses on a normal dose of the drug, but in a novel place. As a result of the novel situation, the user’s tolerance was reduced. According to the compensatory-response model, which of the following was missing from the conditioning scenario?
CS
CR
US
both a and b
> D 183
In keeping with the compensatory-response model of conditioning, many drug fatalities occur when the addict injects a(n) ____ dosage of the drug in a setting that is ____ to drug use.
normal; strongly related
unusually large; unrelated
normal; unrelated
unusually large; strongly related
C 183 QZ
Rescorla-Wagner Theory
According to ____ theory, a given US can support only so much conditioning.
Rescorla-Wagner
opponent process
preparatory response
compensatory response
A 185
According to the Rescorla-Wagner theory, a given US
compensates for the effect of the CS.
can support only so much conditioning.
often has unpredictable effects.
can support unlimited amounts of conditioning.
B 185
According to Freud’s notions of psychic energy, the investment of more energy in the id (the instinctual component of personality) means that less energy is available for the ego (the rational component of personality). This model is analogous to which theory of classical conditioning?
preparatory-response theory
stimulus-substitution theory
Rescorla-Wagner theory
Rescorla-Epling theory
C 185
According to the Rescorla-Wagner theory, the amount of conditioning that occurs
is unlimited.
is unaffected by the number of CSs.
is limited and must be distributed among the various CSs available.
both a and b
C 185
According to the Rescorla-Wagner theory, if a bell and a light are simultaneously associated with shock, then the amount of fear elicited by the bell will be
the same as that elicited by the light.
different from that elicited by the light.
unaffected by the amount of conditioning that occurs to the light.
affected by the amount of conditioning that occurs to the light.
D 185
Suppose a US supports a maximum associative value of 10. According to the Rescorla-Wagner theory, if one CS in a compound stimulus has acquired 7 units of associative value, the other CS will at most have acquired ____ units of associative value.
3
7
10
17
A 187
Suppose a US supports a maximum associative value of 30. According to the Rescorla-Wagner theory, if one CS in a compound stimulus has acquired 10 units of associative value, then the other CS will at most have acquired ____ units of associative value.
15
30
10
20
D 187 QZ
A compound stimulus consists of a buzzer and a light flash, each of which has 0 units of associative value. This compound stimulus is then repeatedly paired with a sweet drink that can support a maximum associative value of 15 units. Following these pairings, the buzzer has acquired 14 units of associative value. This means that the light flash has at most acquired ____ units of associative value, which is a demonstration of ____.
1; overshadowing
1; blocking
15; simple conditioning
14; the overexpectation effect
A 187 FN
According to the Rescorla-Wagner theory of conditioning, blocking occurs because
the US has already taken up most of the available associative strength.
familiar stimuli are more difficult to condition.
the CS gathers more associative strength than the US.
the CS has already taken up most of the available associative strength.
D 187
A compound stimulus consists of a click, which already has 15 units of associative value, and a scent, which has 0 units of associative value. This compound stimulus is then paired with a shock that can support a maximum associative value of 15 units. Following these pairings, the scent will likely have ____ units of associative value, which is a demonstration of ____.
0; overshadowing
7.5; the overexpectation effect
15; overshadowing
0; blocking
D 187 MD
To say that a CS has high associative value is equivalent, in more cognitive terms, to saying that
the animal expects that the CS will be followed by the US.
the CS is a good predictor of the US.
the CS is a good substitute for the US.
both a and b
D 187
A click and a scent are each separately paired with a shock, and conditioned to a maximum associative value. The click and scent are then combined into a compound stimulus and subjected to further pairings with the same shock. A likely result is that the associative value of one CS will ____ while the associative value of the other CS will ____.
decrease; increase
decrease; also decrease
remain unchanged; remain unchanged
increase; increase
B 189
Don was equally attracted to Sasha and Dominique, whom he dated separately. Over time, he learned to become very aroused by Sasha’s style of dress and by Dominique’s perfume. Later, he struck up a relationship with Marnie, who dressed like Sasha and wore the same perfume as Dominique. According to the Rescorla-Wagner theory, the amount of arousal Don experiences from the perfume alone will likely
increase.
decrease.
remain the same.
decrease only if the amount of arousal produced by the style of dress increases.
B 189 WWW
A click and a scent are separately paired with a shock, and each conditioned to the maximum associative value. The click and scent are then combined into a compound stimulus and subjected to further pairings with the shock. This is obviously an experiment on the ____ effect.
blocking
overexpectation
overshadowing
sensory preconditioning
B 189
An aversive blast of air has a maximum associative value of 15 units. A compound stimulus consisting of a click and a scent are repeatedly paired with the puff of air, until the asymptote of conditioning has been reached. The scent acquires 13 units of associative value. This means that the click must have acquired ______ units of associative value, which is an example of ______.
13; overshadowing
2; blocking
2; overshadowing
13; blocking
C 189
Selby found that as he became increasingly interested in a new girl at a school, he began to lose interest in his girlfriend. However, after he found out that this new girl was a rather nasty person, his romantic feelings for his girlfriend returned. Selby’s experience is consistent with the ____ of conditioning.
stimulus-substitution theory
Rescorla-Wagner theory
compensatory-response model
S-R model
B 189
Practical Applications of Classical Conditioning
Understanding Phobias
In general, phobias represent a process of
discrimination.
dishabituation.
overgeneralization.
reciprocal inhibition.
C 190
In the Watson and Rayner experiment with Little Albert, the US was the
rat.
loud noise.
shock.
Santa Claus mask.
B 190 QZ
In the Watson and Rayner experiment with Little Albert, the CS was the
rat.
loud noise.
steel bar.
Santa Claus mask.
A 190
In the “Little Albert” experiment, loud noise is to white rat as ______ is to ______.
CS; NS
US; CS
CS; US
UR; CS
B 191 WWW
In the Watson and Rayner experiment with Little Albert, the rat was
initially the CS.
initially the NS.
the US.
the UR.
B 191
In the Watson and Rayner experiment with Little Albert, Albert’s fear of the ____ was regarded as evidence of stimulus generalization.
rat.
loud noise.
Santa Claus mask.
steel bar.
C 191 FN
The limitations of Watson and Rayner’s Little Albert experiment as an example of phobic conditioning include
the rat had to be repeatedly paired with the loud noise.
Albert’s fear started to diminish following a rest period of several days.
Albert’s fear was easily diminished by thumbsucking.
all of the above
D 192 MD
Factors which suggests that Little Albert did not grow up to have a phobia of furry objects include which of the following?
Little Albert had been exposed to only one pairing of the rat and the loud noise.
Little Albert did not have the kind of temperament often associated with phobias.
Rats are not an appropriate stimulus for phobic conditioning.
Little Albert grew up in an environment in which he had a great deal of control.
B 192
And Furthermore: Little Albert: Lost or Found
Based on evidence presented by both sides, which of the following conclusions can be drawn regarding the statement that Douglas Merritte was ‘Little Albert’?
It has been confirmed.
It has been debunked.
It is nearly certain.
It is unclear.
D 193
Additional Factors in Phobic Conditioning
During the Second World War, the vast majority of people exposed to air raids developed
temporary fear reactions that quickly disappeared.
intense fear reactions that took several years to disappear.
repressed fear reactions that never disappeared.
repressed fear reactions that grew worse as years passed.
A 195
During the Second World War, a major predictor of whether children developed an intense fear of air raids was whether their mothers
were fearful of air raids.
paid attention to them for being fearful.
failed to comfort them when they were fearful.
were divorced.
A 196
If we inherit a tendency to learn fears by observation, then the display of fear by others serves as a(n) _______ for a fear response in ourselves.
NS
US
UR
CR
B 196 QZ
If we have an innate tendency to acquire conditioned fears through the observation of fearful reactions in others, then the look of fear in others must be functioning as a(n)
conditioned stimulus.
unconditioned stimulus.
discriminative stimulus.
neutral stimulus.
B 196
Temperament is an animal’s
base level of emotionality.
reactivity to stimulation.
cognitive capacity.
both a and b
D 196
Aaron is much more reactive to loud noises and sudden events than Kevin is. Using the terminology provided in the text, we would say that there seems to be a difference in ____ between the two children, which has probably to a large extent been ____.
preparedness; learned
temperament; inherited
preparedness; inherited
temperament; learned
B 196 MD
People in general more easily acquire a fear of snakes than of birds. This is an example of the effect of ______. Certain people more easily acquire a fear of snakes than do other people. This is an example of the effect of ______.
preparedness; US revaluation
US revaluation; preparedness
temperament; preparedness
preparedness; temperament
D 196-197 WWW
The concept of ____ refers to an animal’s inherited tendency to acquire certain kinds of fears more easily than others.
temperament
incubation
preparedness
selective sensitization
C 197
Valentine (1930) was unable to replicate Watson and Rayner’s results when he attempted to condition his little daughter to become fearful of some inanimate objects. This provided some of the earliest evidence for the importance of ____ in phobic development.
selective sensitization
incubation
observational learning
preparedness
D 197 FN
Valentine (1930) was unable to produce a phobia in his young daughter by blowing a loud whistle when she touched certain objects. He speculated that this was because
the objects were ones that people are not naturally inclined to fear.
the whistle wasn’t loud enough.
it is difficult to condition a fear response using an auditory stimulus.
his daughter was too young to be conditioned.
A 197
Researchers have found that monkeys can develop fear reactions through observational learning when the feared object is a ____ event.
fear-relevant
fear-irrelevant
both a and b
none of the above; observational learning does not occur in monkeys
A 197 QZ
Researchers found that when people were exposed to subliminally presented pictures paired with electric shock, they subsequently displayed signs of conditioned anxiety when the pictures were of
flowers and toasters.
snakes and spiders.
both a and b
neither a nor b
B 197
Burton grows up in an environment in which he has little control over the things that matter most to him. Paula grows up in an environment in which she experiences a great deal of control over what matters most to her. According to research evidence, which of these children will be most susceptible to acquiring a phobia?
Paula
Burton
both would be equally susceptible
unknown; these types of experiences are irrelevant to phobic development
B 198
The ease with which a conditioned fear response is acquired can be affected by
temperament.
observational learning.
history of control.
all of these
D 196-198
The process of ____ is the strengthening of a fear response through brief exposures to a feared CS.
preparedness
selective sensitization
incubation
US revaluation
C 199
The process of ____ is the strengthening of a conditioned fear response through ____ exposures to a feared CS.
selective sensitization; prolonged
incubation; prolonged
selective sensitization; prolonged
incubation; brief
D 199
After being bitten by a cat, Shawna occasionally encounters cats for brief periods of time. According to the process of ____, these encounters may ____ her fear of cats.
incubation; reduce
incubation; enhance
selective sensitization; enhance
selective sensitization; reduce
B 199 MD
After little Arlo was attacked by a crow, he would run away each time he encountered one. According to the concept of ______, this may result in a(n) ______ in his fear response.
incubation; increase
incubation; decrease
US revaluation; increase
US revaluation; decrease
A 199 WWW
After being stung by a bee, Antonio occasionally sees a bee which he then quickly runs away from. As a result, Antonio’s fear of bees might ____, which is an example of a process that is known as ____.
decrease; incubation
increase; selective sensitization
increase; incubation
decrease; selective sensitization
C 199
Heather was slightly nervous about skiing after she fell and slightly twisted her ankle. She later suffers a serious and painful leg injury in a boating accident. After she fully recovers, she is now not only quite fearful of boating but also of skiing. This is best described as an example of
US revaluation.
incubation.
selective sensitization.
preparedness.
A 199
US revaluation can strengthen a phobia through
direct exposure to a stronger US.
observational learning.
verbally transmitted information.
all of these
D 199
Although Jolene was always slightly nervous while driving, she became extremely frightened of driving after witnessing a terrible car accident. This is best described as an example of
US revaluation.
incubation.
selective sensitization.
preparedness.
A 199
After the therapist told Stan that he had been permanently damaged by the abuse he suffered as a child, he began to experience symptoms of PTSD. This may reflect a process of
incubation.
US revaluation.
selective sensitization.
stimulus generalization.
C 200
According to the process of ____, a person’s reactivity to a fearful event could increase during a stressful event in his or her life.
US revaluation
incubation
selective sensitization
preparedness
C 200
According to the process of selective sensitization, a person’s fears may become exaggerated following exposure to
a US of much greater intensity.
a CS of much greater intensity.
an unfamiliar stimulus.
a stressful event of some sort.
D 200
In phobic development, selective sensitization differs from US revaluation in that the event which exacerbates the person’s fear response
is unrelated to the original fear conditioning.
was somehow involved in the original fear conditioning.
is less salient than the original CS.
is more salient than the original CS.
A 200
Tammy used to love horror movies. One night, however, while watching “Children Shouldn’t Play with Dead Things,” she became unusually fearful. Since then, she has found that whenever she is feeling stressed at work, she has nightmares of being chased by dead people. Which of the following processes most closely describes what has happened to her?
US revaluation
flooding
selective sensitization
semantic recovery
C 200
During exam time, Dilbert finds that he becomes particularly fearful of going out for walks at night. This is best described as an example of
US revaluation.
selective sensitization.
incubation.
preparedness.
B 200 FN
Little fears can grow into big fears through the process of
incubation.
US revaluation.
selective sensitization.
all of these
D 196-200
A slight fear can grow into a major phobia as a result of
blocking.
selective sensitization.
sensory preconditioning.
both a and b
B 200
Treating Phobias
Systematic Desensitization
Mary Cover Jones (1924) was able to eliminate Peter’s rabbit phobia by
gradually moving the rabbit closer and closer.
pairing the presentation of the rabbit with cookies.
both a and b
neither a nor b
C 201
Mary Cover Jones (1924) was able to eliminate Peter’s rabbit phobia by
placing the rabbit in Peter’s lap for long periods of time.
pairing the presentation of the rabbit with relaxation.
both a and b
neither a nor b
D 201
Wolpe’s treatment of experimentally-induced phobias in cats was similar to Mary Cover Jones’ treatment of Peter in that Wolpe used ____ to counter the fear response.
food
relaxation
drugs
intense exercise
A 202
In ____, an event that elicits one type of response is associated with another event that elicits a(n) ____ response.
counterconditioning; similar
counterconditioning; incompatible
selective sensitization; similar
selective sensitization; opposite
B 202
The underlying process in counterconditioning is
selective sensitization.
sensory preconditioning.
reciprocal inhibition.
sensory preparedness.
C 202
I cannot be both angry and happy at the same time, which means that a good joke can often defuse my anger about something. This is an example of
counterpreparedness.
reciprocal preparedness.
covert conditioning.
reciprocal inhibition.
D 202
Ned found that if he ate cookies while thinking about his recurrent nightmare, the frequency and severity of those nightmares began to decrease. This appears to be an example of the process of
extinction.
reciprocal inhibition.
covert conditioning.
systematic desensitization.
B 202 MD
The three steps in systematic desensitization include
creation of a hierarchy of progressively more fearful scenes.
training in deep muscle relaxation.
both a and b
neither a nor b
C 203
The method of systematic desensitization involves pairing ____ with a succession of stimuli that elicit ____ levels of fear.
relaxation; decreasing
muscle tension; increasing
relaxation; increasing
muscle tension; decreasing
C 203 QZ
The method of ____ involves pairing relaxation with a succession of stimuli that elicit increasing levels of fear.
systematic desensitization
exposure and response prevention
flooding
implosive therapy
A 203
With in vivo desensitization, the phobic stimulus is presented
subliminally.
with sudden intensity.
in imaginary form.
in reality.
D 203
With ____, there are few worries about whether the treatment effect will generalize to the real world.
flooding
in vivo desensitization
imaginary desensitization
covert sensitization
B 203
Systematic desensitization is likely to be effective with
a person who is fearful of crowds.
a person who is fearful of spiders and nothing else.
a person who is fearful of many things.
all of these
B 204
Flooding
A treatment method that involves prolonged exposure to a feared stimulus is
flooding.
systematic desensitization.
in vivo desensitization.
reality therapy.
A 205
Gradual is to intense as ____ is to ____.
flooding; systematic desensitization
in vivo flooding; imaginal flooding
systematic desensitization; flooding
in vivo desensitization; imaginal desensitization
C 205
The basic process involved in flooding appears to be
extinction.
counterconditioning.
incubation.
dishabituation.
A 205 WWW
For flooding to be effective, the period of exposure to the feared stimulus must be
gradually increased.
gradually decreased.
relatively long.
quite short.
C 205
Problems with flooding include
the patient may become so stressed that medical complications result.
the treatment might sometimes worsen a phobia.
both a and b
neither a nor b
C 206
One must be particularly cautious about using flooding therapy with a person who suffers from
depression.
snake phobias.
dog phobias.
posttraumatic stress disorder.
D 206
Hybrid Approaches to the Treatment of Phobias
Öst’s single-session treatment procedure for phobias involves
in vivo exposure to the feared stimulus.
eliciting relatively intense levels of fear.
encouraging the client to gradually approach the feared event.
all of these
D 206
Öst’s single-session treatment procedure for phobias combines the ____ aspect of systematic desensitization with the ____ aspect of flooding.
gradual approach; brief exposure
gradual approach; prolonged exposure
sudden approach; prolonged exposure
brief exposure; sudden approach
B 206
Öst’s single-session treatment procedure for phobias includes a ____ component.
gradual approach
participant modeling
prolonged exposure
all of these
D 208
Exposure-based treatments for phobias are generally more effective when they include
participant modeling.
nonparticipatory modeling.
very brief exposures to the aversive stimulus.
covert conditioning.
A208
And Furthermore: Was Sigmund Freud a Behavior Analyst?
Freud overcame his own fear of heights using a process similar to
systematic desensitization.
flooding.
covert sensitization.
participant modeling.
B 207
Freud believed that the _____ step in the treatment of a phobia should involve _____.
initial; uncovering traumatic memories
initial; prolonged exposure to what the person is afraid of
final; prolonged exposure to what the person is afraid of
both a and c
B 207
Aversion Therapy
The treatment method known as ____ involves pairing an event that is overly attractive with an unpleasant stimulus.
systematic desensitization
flooding
aversion therapy
appetitive therapy
C 209
Forcing yourself to play a computer game to which you are addicted until you are absolutely hate it is an example of
aversion therapy.
covert sensitization.
flooding.
implosive therapy.
A 209
The method of rapid smoking
is a form of aversion therapy.
involves taking a puff every 6-10 seconds.
both a and b
neither a nor b
C 209
Aversion therapy for alcoholism often involves
the use of an emetic.
pairing alcohol ingestion with nausea.
pairing alcohol ingestion with relaxation.
both a and b
D 209
Aversion therapy for alcoholism often involves
the use of an enema.
pairing alcohol ingestion with relaxation.
pairing alcohol ingestion with nausea.
both a and b
C 209
In general, for both smoking and alcoholism, ____ treatments are more effective than ____ treatments.
shock-based; nausea-based
nausea-based; shock-based
flooding; covert sensitization
desensitization; sensitization
B 209
Aversion therapy has been used to treat
sex offenders.
smoking.
alcoholism.
all of these
D 209
Covert sensitization involves the use of
an emetic.
a fear hierarchy.
imaginal stimuli.
all of these
C 210
Attempting to eliminate your attraction to a former partner by imagining him or her covered in vomit is an example of
imaginal desensitization.
in vivo flooding.
systematic sensitization.
covert sensitization.
D 210 MD
In order to overcome her addiction to hamburgers, Sheila imagines that the meat contains ground cockroaches. What therapeutic technique is she attempting to use?
flooding
covert conditioning
desensitization
in vivo aversive conditioning
B 210 WWW
Developing an aversion to lettuce and tomato sandwiches after hearing a story about someone who once found a spider in such a sandwich is analogous to the treatment procedure known as
covert sensitization.
imaginal desensitization.
imaginal flooding.
covert flooding.
A 210 FN
Medical Applications
If a person displays an allergic reaction to an artificial flower, the allergic reaction is most likely a
CS.
US.
CR.
UR.
C 211
Research revealed that patients who received chemotherapy in a hospital setting subsequently experienced a(n) ____ immune response when they again visited the hospital. In this example, the ____ would be classified as the US.
enhanced; hospital
suppressed; hospital
enhanced; chemotherapy
suppressed; chemotherapy
D 211
Research revealed that patients who received chemotherapy in a hospital setting subsequently experienced a(n) ____ immune response when they again visited the hospital. In this case, the ____ would be classified as the CS.
enhanced; hospital
suppressed; hospital
enhanced; chemotherapy
suppressed; chemotherapy
B 211 QZ
The scent of lilacs is repeatedly paired with shots of adrenaline, which facilitates immune system activity. As a result, the scent of lilacs is likely to elicit
a stress response.
suppression of the immune system.
enhanced functioning of the immune system.
occasion setting.
C 212 WWW
In a placebo effect, the little white pill functions as the _____ while the drug within it functions as the _____.
US; CS
UR; CR
CS; US
CR; UR
C 212
Evidence that classical conditioning often underlies placebo effects is the fact that
the effects are stronger following a period of treatment with the real drug.
repeated administration of the placebo by itself strengthens its effectiveness.
both a and b
neither a nor b
A 212
And Furthermore: Classical Conditioning, Gulf War Syndrome, and Multiple Chemical Sensitivity
Ferguson and Cassaday (1999) speculated that the symptoms of Gulf War Syndrome are actually
unconditioned responses to stimuli associated with the war.
conditioned responses to stimuli associated with the war.
the result of a viral infection.
purely imaginary.
B 213
It has been argued by Ferguson and Cassaday (1999) that the symptoms of Gulf War Syndrome are actually
CRs elicited by stimuli encountered during the Gulf War.
URs elicited by stimuli encountered during the Gulf War.
hysterical in origin.
a symptom of posttraumatic stress disorder.
A 213
It has been argued by Ferguson and Cassaday (1999) that the symptoms of Gulf War Syndrome are actually
classically conditioned responses.
the result of covert sensitization.
a symptom of posttraumatic stress disorder.
all of these
A 213
It has been hypothesized that the symptoms of multiple chemical sensitivity are actually _____ resulting from a process of stimulus _____.
URs; discrimination
CRs; generalization
URs; generalization
CRs; discrimination
B 213
It has been proposed that in multiple chemical sensitivity, the toxic substance to which the person was initially exposed functions as a _____ while the _____ of the substance functions as a _____.
US; appearance; CS
CS; appearance; US
US; odor; CS
CS; odor; US
C 213
Fill-in-the-Blank Items
Most of these items are taken from or are very similar to the end-of-chapter test items in the text; the items at the end that are marked WWW are posted on the student resource website.
The ease with which an individual can acquire a conditioned fear response may be influenced by their base level of emotionality and reactivity to stimulation, which is known as _____________________.
temperament
Lothar’s job has recently become quite stressful. Interestingly, he is also developing a fear of driving through rush-hour traffic. This is best described as an example of _________________________________________.
selective sensitization
Gina’s parents are extremely concerned about her well-being, and as a result do almost everything for her. By contrast, Sarah’s parents make sure that she does a lot of things on her own. Between the two of them, _________ may be less susceptible to the development of a phobia, insofar as a history of being able to _______________ important events in one’s environment may (reduce/increase) ______________ one’s susceptibility to acquiring a phobia.
Sarah; control; reduce
Traditional advice has it that if you fall off a horse, you should immediately get back on and keep riding until your fear has disappeared. This approach is similar to the therapeutic technique known as _______________. Furthermore, getting back on immediately allows no opportunity for brief exposures to the feared stimulus which could result in _____________________ of the conditioned fear response.
flooding; incubation
Warren begins wheezing whenever people even talk about dogs. In the terminology of classical conditioning, the talk about dogs appears to be a (use the abbreviation) _____ while the wheezing is a ______.
CS; CR
The ________ approach to learning views classical conditioning as a process of directly attaching a reflex response to a new stimulus.
S-R
Whenever I see Attila, the neighbor’s dog, I am reminded that he once bit me, which makes me quite nervous. This sequence of events fits best with an S-___ approach to classical conditioning.
S
According to the ___________________ theory, ________________ occurs because the CS in the compound has already picked up most of the available associative value.
Rescorla-Wagner; blocking
According to the ____________________ model of classical conditioning, the opponent processes elicited by a US may come to elicited by a CS.
compensatory-response
When Uncle Bob and Aunt Shirley were separated, they each gave Little Billy great Christmas presents, with the result that he developed strong positive feelings for both. They then resolved their difficulties and moved back together. They now give Little Billy one great present from the two of them. The ____________________ theory predicts that Little Billy’s positive feelings for each will now be weaker. This is known as the __________________________ effect.
Rescorla-Wagner; overexpectation
The procedure whereby a CS that elicits one type of response is associated with an event that elicits an incompatible response is called __________________________.
counterconditioning
The fact that a rat freezes in the presence of a CS for shock but jumps when shocked can be accounted for by the ______________________________ theory of conditioning.
preparatory-response
The term _________________ refers to the strengthening of a conditioned fear response as a result of (brief/prolonged) _________________ exposures to the phobic stimulus.
incubation; brief WWW
The process whereby relaxation inhibits the occurrence of anxiety is called ________________________.
reciprocal inhibition WWW
Stan was once in a car accident with his mother while he was reading a picture book on snakes. As a result, he acquired a lasting fear of snakes but not of driving in a car with his mother. This seems to be an example of _________________.
preparedness WWW
Short-Answer Items
Most of these items are end-of-chapter study questions from the text; those marked WWW are additional items from the student resource website.
Distinguish between S-R and S-S models of conditioning.
According to the S-R (stimulus-response) model of conditioning, the NS becomes directly associated with the UR, and therefore comes to elicit the same response as the UR. According to the S-S (stimulus-stimulus) model of conditioning, the NS becomes directly associated with the US, and therefore comes to elicit a response that is somehow related to the US. (175-176)
Describe stimulus-substitution theory. What is the major weakness of this theory?
According to Pavlov’s stimulus-substitution theory, the CS acts as a substitute for the US. The major weakness of this theory is the fact that the CR is sometimes quite different from the UR, which the theory would not have predicted. (176-178)
Describe the preparatory-response theory of conditioning.
According to preparatory-response theory, the purpose of the CR is to prepare the organism for the presentation of the US. (178)
Describe the compensatory-response model of conditioning. How does compensatory-response model account for drug overdoses that occur when an addict seems to have injected only a normal amount of the drug?
According to the compensatory-response model of classical conditioning, the compensatory after-reactions to a US may come to be elicited by a CS. A critical factor in drug overdose appears to be the setting within which the drug is administered. If an addict typically administers the drug in the presence of certain cues, those cues can become CSs that elicit compensatory reactions to the drug. An addict’s tolerance to the drug is therefore much greater in the presence of such cues than in their absence. This also means that a dosage that is well tolerated in an environment associated with drug use may be lethal in an environment not associated with drug use. (178-179, 183-184)
Describe the Rescorla-Wagner theory. Describe how the theory accounts for overshadowing and blocking.
The Rescorla-Wagner theory proposes that a given US can support only so much conditioning, and this amount of conditioning must be distributed among the various CSs available. Another way of saying this is that there is only so much associative value to be distributed among the various cues associated with the US. With respect to overshadowing, the theory assumes that the more salient NS within the compound picks up most of the available associative value, thereby leaving little or no associative value for the less salient NS. With respect to blocking, the theory assumes that the CS member of the compound stimulus has already picked up all of the available associative value, thereby leaving no associative value for the NS member of the compound with which it has now been paired. (185-187)
Describe the overexpectation effect and how the Rescorla-Wagner theory accounts for it.
Two CSs are separately conditioned to the maximum associative value that can be supported by the US. They are then presented jointly in a compound stimulus for further pairings with the US. Because the combined associative value of the compound stimulus now exceeds the total associative value that can be supported by the US, these pairings of the compound stimulus with the US will result in a weakening of the CR elicited by each CS. In other words, each CS in the compound loses some of its associative value. It is as though presenting the two CSs together leads to an “overexpectation” about what will follow. When this expectation is not fulfilled, the subject’s expectations are modified downward. (188-189)
Briefly describe the Watson and Rayner experiment with Little Albert and the results obtained.
Little Albert was an 11-month infant who originally displayed no fear of a white rat, but did become upset at the presentation of a loud noise. Watson and Rayner then paired the white rat with the loud noise. After a few such pairings, Albert began to display a fear response to the rat. He later displayed a fear response to other white furry objects, such as a Santa Claus mask, which suggests that the fear response had generalized to stimuli similar to the CS. (190-191)
Assuming that the look of fear in others can act as a US, diagram an example of observational learning in the acquisition of a phobia. Be sure to include the appropriate abbreviation for each component in the procedure.
With respect to observational learning, we have a tendency to develop fear reactions to stimuli that elicit fear reactions in others.
Dog: Look of fear in others —> Fear in oneself
NSUSUR
Dog —> Fear in oneself
CSCR
(196)
Describe how temperament and preparedness can affect the acquisition of a phobia.
Temperament is an individual’s base level of emotionality and reactivity to stimulation which, to a large extent, is genetically determined. Temperament seems to affect the ease with which a conditioned response can be acquired. Thus, individuals with certain temperaments may be more genetically susceptible than others to the development of conditioned fear reactions.
The concept of preparedness holds that some species are genetically prepared to learn certain kinds of associations more easily than others. Thus, animals may have an inherited predisposition to develop certain types of fears. (196-197)
Describe how selective sensitization and incubation can affect the acquisition of a phobia. Be sure that your answer clearly indicates the difference between them.
Selective sensitization is an increase in one’s reactivity to a potentially fearful stimulus during an unrelated stressful time in one’s life.
Incubation is the strengthening of a conditioned fear response as a result of brief exposures to the aversive CS. (198-199, 200)
What would be the likelihood of a child who had very little control over important events in her life of later acquiring a phobia (compared to a child who had more control)? Also, describe how US revaluation can affect the acquisition of a phobia.
The child who had little control would be more likely to acquire a phobia.
With respect to US revaluation, exposure to an aversive US of high intensity can alter the strength of response to a CS that had previously been associated with a low intensity version of the US. The person may then become more fearful of the CS even though it was never directly paired with the high intensity US. This can occur through (1) direct exposure to a US of different intensity or through indirect exposure via (2) observational learning or (3) verbally transmitted information. (198, 199-200)
What is counterconditioning? Name and define the underlying process.
In counterconditioning, a CS that already elicits one type of response is associated with an event that elicits an incompatible response. The underlying process is reciprocal inhibition which holds that certain responses are incompatible with each other, such that the occurrence of one response necessarily inhibits the other. (202)
Outline the three components of systematic desensitization.
The three components are:
1. Training in deep muscle relaxation.
2. Creation of a hierarchy of imaginary scenes that initially elicit progressively more intense levels of fear.
3. Pairing each item in the hierarchy with relaxation.
(203)
Define flooding. Be sure to mention the underlying process by which it is believed to operate. Also, what is the distinction between imaginal and in vivo versions flooding.
Flooding is a behavioral treatment that involves prolonged exposure to a feared stimulus, thereby providing maximal opportunity for the conditioned fear response to extinguish. In imaginal flooding, the encounter with the feared stimulus occurs in one’s imagination. In in vivo flooding, one encounters an actual version of the feared stimulus. (205-206)
Define aversion therapy. What is covert sensitization? WWW
Aversion therapy reduces the attractiveness of a desired event by associating it with an aversive stimulus. Covert sensitization is a type of aversion therapy carried out with the use of imaginal rather than real stimuli. (209-211)
Diagram an example of a classical conditioning procedure that results in an alteration (strengthening or weakening) of immune system functioning. Diagram an example of a classical conditioning process involved in the creation of a placebo effect. Be sure to label each component with the appropriate abbreviation.
Examples in the text:
Weakening:
Hospital: Chemotherapy Immunosuppression
NS US UR
Hospital Immunosuppression
CS CR
Strengthening:
Sweet sherbet: Adrenaline Increased natural killer cell activity
NSUSUR
Sweet sherbet Increased natural killer cell activity
CSCR
Placebo:
White pill: Acetylsalicylic acid Headache removal
NSUSUR
White pill Headache removal
CSCR
(211-213)
Diagram the sequence of events that Pavlov believed occurred on a neurological level during a classically conditioned response of salivation. What informal observation of Pavlov’s seemed to support the notion of stimulus substitution theory?
Light —> Activates light center in cortex —> Activates food center in cortex —> Activates salivation center in cortex —> Salivation
Pavlov observed that dogs would sometimes approach the light and lick it, as though it was edible. (177)
Outline Wolpe’s versus Eysenck’s explanation for the effectiveness of systematic desensitization and the evidence in support of each. WWW
Wolpe assumed that systematic desensitization is a counterconditioning procedure that works through the process of reciprocal inhibition. Eysenck claimed that systematic desensitization is really just a simple matter of extinction, in which a CS is repeatedly presented in the absence of the US. Evidence for the extinction explanation comes from the fact that relaxation is not always needed for the treatment to be effective; gradual exposure to the feared stimulus is by itself often sufficient. On the other hand, in support of the counterconditioning explanation, severe phobias respond better to treatment when relaxation is included. (194-204)
Outline Öst’s single-session treatment procedure for eliminating a phobia. WWW
The major component of the treatment package was an in vivo exposure procedure in which clients were encouraged to approach the feared object as closely as possible, remain there until the anxiety faded away, then approach the object even more closely. This process continued until the client had approached the object closely and her reported level of fear toward the object had been reduced by 50% or more. Also, most clients were accompanied by a person (the therapist) who acted as a model to demonstrate to the client how to interact with the feared object (such as how to use a jar to capture a spider). The therapist also helped the client physically contact the feared object, say, by first touching the object while the client touched the model’s hand, then touching the object while the client also touched the object, and then gradually removing his hand while the patient continued touching the object. (206-208)
PAGE 150
CHAPTER 5
PAGE 149
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: UNDERLYING PROCESSES AND PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
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