Human Motivation 6th Edition by Robert E. Franken – Test Bank

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Chapter 5

Arousal, Attention, and Peak Performance

Overview: One of the major goals in the study of motivation is the elucidation of the factors that influence task performance.  The best or peak task performance is thought to result from the ability to fully focus one’s attention on the task while performing at maximum capacity.  Although people may intend to perform at their best, they often fall short of this goal due to the inability to fully focus their attention.   By examining the relationship between arousal, attention, and peak performance, this chapter illuminates the complex and intricate nature of the problem of gaining voluntary control over our attentional mechanisms in order to achieve peak performance.  The ideas at the core of the discussion are: (1) attention is not completely under voluntary control; (2) a hard-wired relationship exists between arousal and attention such that as arousal shifts, the direction and organization of attention tends to shift; (3) by gaining voluntary control over arousal, we can gain indirect control over attention; (4) although gaining voluntary control over arousal may be possible, it’s more complex than it seems due to the existence of a number of functionally independent arousal systems and due to the interplay of biological, learned, and cognitive factors; and (5) all arousal systems have to be operating optimally in order to achieve peak performance. 

The following is a summary of the contents of this chapter: 

I.  The Nature and Systems of Arousal: Arousal refers to the energization of the brain and the body in preparation for engagement in adaptive behaviors. There are two primary arousal systems – (a) Cortical: The reticular activating system arouses the cortex, preparing it to attend to and process incoming information.  Discussed in detail is the importance of the activation of the prefrontal cortex to facilitate goal-directed behavior.  This structure is involved in the capacity to mentally represent future consequences of behavior and the capacity to inhibit responses to external stimuli and emotions that could distract attention from the task at hand.  The possible role of a dysfunctional prefrontal cortex in ADHD is also discussed.  (b) Autonomic: This system primarily energizes the body.  The hypothalamus activates the endocrine system and the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system to ready the body for adaptive action.  

II. Traditional Arousal Theory of Performance: Theories and research on the relationships between arousal and affect, arousal and performance, and arousal and attention are discussed in depth – (a) Optimal Stimulation Theory’s proposed U-shaped relationship between arousal and affect; (b) Hebb’s proposed U-shaped relationship between arousal and task performance, and the Yerkes-Dodson Law describing the relationship between arousal and performance on difficult versus easy tasks;  (c) Research on sensory deprivation and anxiety as support of  U-shaped relationships for both arousal/affect and arousal/performance; and (d) Easterbrook’s theory of the hard-wired relationship between arousal and attention is discussed in detail—according to this theory, as arousal increases beyond the optimal level, attention narrows and becomes reorganized to be selectively vigilant to cues that are threatening to survival.  

III.  A Broader Theory of Peak Performance:  A broader perspective of the factors determining peak performance is described in detail.  This perspective is based upon the idea that performance is influenced by the pooled effect of a number of functionally independent arousal systems (each having interacting  biological, learning, and cognitive components), and that all systems must operate optimally to achieve peak performance.  These arousal systems include:  (a) Trait Arousal System: High trait arousal is often called anxiety or negative emotionality; it is viewed as a personality trait that determines the likelihood that a person will experience anxiety in stressful situations.  Kagan’s Timidity Theory, Eysenck’s Extraversion-Introversion Theory, Gray’s Behavioral Inhibition Theory, and Barlow’s Anxious Apprehension Theory are all used to highlight the biological component of trait arousal; while learning and cognitive contributions to trait arousal are introduced through a discussion of modeling and imitation, Beck’s learning/cognitive theory describing how high arousal can lead to the development of negative implicit self and world theories, and cognitive theories that argue that the diffuse nature of arousal is subjected to cognitive appraisals that determine the affect attributed to the arousal and its effect on performance.  (b) State Arousal Systems: High state arousal is viewed as a transitory emotional response involving feelings of tension and apprehension and it arises out of the person-environment interaction.  Four state arousal systems are discussed in detail—sensory  overload (stress), cognitive dissonance, and two forms of evaluation arousal (test anxiety and dislike competition arousal).

Outline:

Definition of Arousal

Cortical Arousal:

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

Measuring Cortical Activity:

Electroencephalograms

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Prefrontal Cortex and Attention:

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Evolutionary Consideration

Autonomic Nervous System

Arousal, Affect, and Performance:

Arousal and Affect

Arousal and Performance:

Research on Sensory Deprivation

Research on Anxiety

Optimal Stimulation and Individual Goals

Conclusion

Arousal and Attention:

Arousal and Selective Attention

Arousal and Reorganization of Attention

Two Activation Systems

Conclusion

Summary

Challenges for Performance Theory:

Unexplained Arousal

Reconceptualizing the Link Between Arousal and Performance

  Systems Involved in Peak Performance

Trait Arousal (Anxiety):

The Biological Component:

Kagan’s Timidity Theory

Eysenck’s Extraversion/Introversion Theory

Gray’s Behavioral Inhibition Model

Barlow’s Anxious Apprehension Model

Conclusion

The Learned Social Component

The Cognitive Component

High Trait Arousal and Performance

Summary

State Arousal: Sensory Overload

Sources of Arousal

The Concept of Sensory Overload:

The Biological Component

The Learned Component

The Cognitive Component

Dealing with Sensory Overload at the Cognitive Level:

Setting Priorities

Managing Information

Sensory Overload and Performance

Summary

State Arousal: Cognitive Dissonance

The Biological Component

The Learned Component

The Cognitive Component

Cognitive Dissonance and Performance

Summary

State Arousal: Evaluative Arousal

Test Anxiety:

The Biological Component

The Learned Component

The Cognitive Component

Test Anxiety and Performance

Summary

Competition Arousal:

The Biological Component

The Learned Component

The Cognitive Component

Competition Motivation and Perfromance

Evolutionary Consideration

Coping with Evaluation Arousal

Summary

State Arousal and Performance: Some Concluding Comments

Arousal and Performance on an Immediate Task

Arousal and Performance on a Subsequent Task

Pooled Arousal

Self-Regulation of Arousal and Attention

Main Points:

 1.   There are two sources or types of arousal: cortical arousal and autonomic arousal.  

 2.   Epinephrine and norepinephrine, which are secreted by the adrenal glands, provide the

       long-term backup for the more immediate action of the sympathetic nervous system.

 3.   The relationship between arousal and affect can be described as an inverted U-shape

       function.  Studies of anxiety and sensory deprivation provide evidence for this 

       hypothesis.

 4.   According to Apter’s theory, people are sometimes motivated by a desire for 

       achievement (by telic goals) and at other times by a desire to experience pleasure

       in the here and now (by paratelic goals).

 5.   According to Easterbrook, our attention is broad and inclusive at low levels of

       arousal and becomes narrow and exclusive at high levels.

 6.   Eysenck’s theory describes how trait arousal interacts with environmental arousal

       to produce optimal hedonic states (affect).

 7.   Whether we experience anxiety has been linked to how we are inclined to appraise

       situations.

 8.   The GABA system is a naturally occurring inhibitory system that reduces the flow

       of neural transmission.

 9.   Restricted environmental stimulation technique (REST) is useful in helping people

       deal with excessive environmental stimulation.  This technique appears to work by 

       helping people to focus their attention on internal rather than external cues.

 10. Sensory overload can lead to increases in arousal that lead to the narrowing and 

       reorganization of attention.

11. Psychological discomfort (also called intrapersonal tension) motivates individuals

       to implement strategies that will alleviate that state.

12. Test Anxiety increases arousal and often causes self-preoccupying intrusive thinking.

 13. Sarason indicated that people can control intrusive thinking by focusing on the task.

 14. Several laboratory studies have shown that a competitive orientation (high need to win) 

       tends to undermine performance.

 15. Studies suggest that people with a strong need to win not only see the world as threatening

       but see themselves as lacking the skills to successfully cope with the world.  Among other

       things, they have poor skills for coping with stress.

 16. Evaluation appears to lead to distraction of attention.  People report that evaluation

       makes them self-conscious, induces them to lose concentration, and leads them to

       think about their faults and weaknesses.

 

Concepts, Terms, and Theories:

Adrenal Medulla Reticular Activating System (RAS)

Anterior Cingulate Cortex Selective Attention

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Self-Evaluative Focus

Autonomic Arousal System Sensory Deprivation

Barlow’s Anxious Apprehension Model Sensory Overload

Behavioral Activation System (BAS) Serotonin

Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) State Arousal

Biological Rhythms Sympathetic Nervous System

Cognitive Dissonance Telic Goals

Competition Arousal Test Anxiety

Competitive Orientation Trait Arousal

Cortical Arousal System Yerkes-Dodson Law

Counterattitudinal Essay

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

Endocrine System

Epinephrine

Evaluation Arousal

Eysenck’s Extraversion/Introversion Theory

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

GABA System

Gray’s Behavioral Inhibition Model

Intrusive Thinking

Inverted U-Shaped Function

Kagan’s Timidity Model

Locus Coeruleus

Mastery-Work Orientation

Negative Activation System (NA)

Norepinephrine

Optimal Stimulation Theory

Paratelic Goals

Performance Theory

Pituitary Gland

Pooled Arousal

Positive Activation System (PA)

Prefrontal Cortex

Raphe Nuclei

Reorganization of Attention

Restricted Environmental Stimulation Technique (REST)

Classroom Activities/ Demonstrations/ Discussions:

1.  Have the class use the concepts of ‘response facilitation’ and ‘dominant responses’ to

     explain the Yerkes-Dodson Law.

2.  Discuss Zajonc’s (1965) ‘mere presence of others’ and ‘response facilitation’ explanation of  

     Social Facilitation on task performance.  Also, discuss the ‘evaluation apprehension’ and

     ‘distraction-conflict’ explanations of social facilitation and whether these explanations can

     account for Zajonc’s (1969) results on social facilitation in cockroaches.

3.  Discuss Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory of Emotion and Schachter & Singer’s (1962) test of

     this theory as an illustration of the role of cognitive appraisal in determining the affect 

     attributed to arousal and its possible subsequent effect on performance (see weblink below).

4.  Discuss Zillman’s Transfer of Arousal or Excitation hypothesis as an illustration of

     of how cognitive appraisal and the pooling of arousal can influence affect and

     behavior (e.g., the capacity of residual arousal to combine with subsequent arousal of

     feelings of passion or anger to intensify those feelings and their associated behaviors).

Weblinks:

 1.   Try  HYPERLINK “http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~lwh/drugs/” http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~lwh/drugs/ for additional reading on arousal.  Drugs, Brain  

       and Behavior by C. Robin Timmons and L. Hamilton can be accessed on-line.  Chapter 1 

       gives an in-depth description of the autonomic nervous system (with graphics).  Chapter 8

       gives in-depth coverage of general arousal, including a discussion of arousal and reward,

       and drugs that increase or decrease arousal.

 2.  Try  HYPERLINK “http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~lwh/drugs/” http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~lwh/drugs/ for a discussion of Schachter and Singer’s 

      experiment and Two-Factor Theory of Emotion described in classroom activities (above).

 3.  Try  HYPERLINK “http://www.thebrain.mcgill.ca/” http://www.thebrain.mcgill.ca/  for a discussion and diagrams of the BAS and the BIS.

      Click on the ‘pleasure and pain’ module at this site, select the advanced/psychological 

      presentation, and then click on the ‘two motivation systems’ which is highlighted.

 4.  For a brief discussion of the contemporary use of the EEG and neurotherapy, see the website

      of Behavioral Medicine Associates, Inc.:  HYPERLINK “http://www.qeeg.com/qeegfact..html” http://www.qeeg.com/qeegfact..html .

 5.  For instructor or student access to free abstracts and links to full text articles,

      PubMed, the National Library of Medicine website is an excellent site for access to 

      current articles related to the topics of this chapter and the remaining chapters 

      ( HYPERLINK “http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.org” http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.org). Search by authors, journals, 

      or topic at this site.

Questions:

   1.        Peak performance means  (p. 114)

    A.  being the best (winning) in a particular endeavor or activity.

    B.  doing the very best that one is capable of doing.

    C.  being able to persist in the face of distractions and adversity.

          *  D.  doing the very best that one is capable of doing and being able to persist in the face

              of distractions and adversity.

              Factual

   2.        Based upon the discussion in the text, peak performance is most likely to   

              be achieved when we  (p. 114)

              A.  exert direct voluntary control over our mechanisms of attention.

              B.  allow our mechanisms of attention to be governed by involuntary

                    control mechanisms.

          *  C.  gain voluntary control over our arousal mechanisms.

              D.  allow our arousal mechanisms to be governed by involuntary control

                    mechanisms.

              

              Conceptual

W3.       One of the main things that prevents us from achieving peak performance is our  (p. 114)

    A.  inability to process information.

          *  B.  inability to control attention.

    C.  lack of motivation.

    D.  need to maintain a homeostatic level of arousal.

              Factual

   4.        Autonomic arousal and cortical arousal are  (p. 114)

    A.  directly related (when one is high the other is high).

    B.  inversely related (when one is high the other is low).

          *  C.  are independent (when one is high or low the other may be high or low).

    D.  basically the same thing.

              Factual

   5.        The reticular activating system (RAS) is a system that  (p. 114)

          *  A.  arouses the entire cortex.

    B.  activates the pituitary gland.

    C.  arouses the visual cortex.

    D.  arouses the motor cortex.

              Factual

   6.        The descending track of the RAS appears to be important for  (p. 114)

    A.  processing information faster.

    B.  processing information better.

    C.  processing visual information. 

          *  D.  improving the speed and coordination of motor responses.

              Factual

   7.        Research has shown that learning and reaction times on perceptual

              discrimination tasks are _______ when the _______ is stimulated to

              arouse the cortex. (p. 114)

              A.  faster; autonomic nervous system

              B.  slower; autonomic nervous system

              C.  slower; RAS

          *  D.  faster; RAS

              Conceptual

W8.       Changes in cortical activity  (as measured by EEG) are characterized by  (p. 115)

    A.  gradual changes in frequency.

    B.  abrupt changes in frequency.

    C.  gradual changes in amplitude and frequency.

          *  D.  abrupt changes in amplitude and frequency.

              Factual

   9.        One practical problem associated with using the EEG is that  (p. 115)

              A.  changes in cortical arousal occur too quickly and abruptly to be accurately

                    reflected by the EEG.

          *  B.  it is limited in its ability to tell very much about the activity of the more

                    central areas of the brain.

              C.  it is a poorer index of the arousal of the cortex than it is of arousal of the body.

              D.  all of these.

              

              Factual

   10.      The roles of inhibiting responses to external stimuli, inhibiting a variety of emotions,

              and being highly responsive to novelty are most characteristic of the  (p. 116)

          *  A.  prefrontal cortex.

              B.  hypothalamus.

              C.  endocrine system.

              D.  sympathetic nervous system.

              

              Conceptual

   11.      The statement that “attention may be best controlled by engaging in goal-directed

              behavior” highlights the important role of the __________ in achieving peak 

              performance.  (p. 116)

          *  A.  prefrontal cortex

              B.  reticular activating system

              C.  hypothalamus

              D.  sympathetic nervous system

              Conceptual

   12.      Which of the following appears to play an ‘executive’ role in the control of

              arousal and anxiety?  (p. 116-117)

              A.  the reticular activating system

          *  B.  the anterior cingulate cortex

              C.  the hypothalamus

              D.  the ‘master’ gland

              Conceptual

   13.      Joe has been described as being inattentive, hyperactive, impulsive, and lacking

              control over his emotions.  Based upon this description, it is likely that Joe

              may have a dysfunctional or undeveloped _______.  (p. 116-117)

              A.  reticular activating system

              B.  sympathetic nervous system

          *  C.  prefrontal cortex

              D.  hypothalamus

              Applied

W14.     ADHD may be due to a dysfunctional __________.  (p. 117)

              A.  reticular activating system

              B.  sympathetic nervous system

          *  C.  prefrontal cortex

              D.  hypothalamus

              Factual

   15.      Besides an increase in cortical activity, many other physiological changes occur

              when a person is in a state of arousal.  The autonomic nervous system is responsible

              for these other changes.  The _______ in the brain triggers these other changes

              primarily by activating the _______ division of the autonomic nervous system.  (p. 118)

              A.  hypothalamus; parasympathetic

          *  B.  hypothalamus; sympathetic

              C.  reticular activating system; parasympathetic

              D.  reticular activating system; sympathetic

              Conceptual

   16.      The hypothalamus  (p. 118)

              A.  activates the sympathetic nervous system (a branch of the autonomic nervous 

                    system).

    B.  activates the adrenal gland which secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine.

    C.  activates the anxiety response which causes anxious apprehension.D. A & B

          *  D.  activates the sympathetic nervous system (a branch of the autonomic nervous

                    system), and activates the adrenal gland which secretes epinephrine and

                    norepinephrine.

               

              Conceptual

              

W17.     The secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine  (p. 118)

          *  A.  provides the long-term backup to the sympathetic nervous system.

    B.  causes the activation of the sympathetic nervous system.

    C.  reduces RAS arousal.

    D.  all of these.

 

              Factual

   18.      Most of the physiological changes associated with arousal of the body

              (heart beat, respiration, etc) are caused by  (p. 118)

    A.  the endocrine system.

          *  B.  the sympathetic nervous system.

    C.  the peripheral nervous system.

    D.  activity of the left prefrontal cortex.

              Factual

   19.      According to optimal stimulation theory the relationship between arousal and

              affect is best described as  (p. 118)

          *  A.  an inverted U shaped function.

    B.  a U shaped function.

    C.  a linear function.

    D.  a quadratic function.

              

              Factual

   20.      Considerable evidence suggests that the relationship between affect and cortical

              arousal is best described as  (p. 118)

    A.  an inverted U shaped function.

    B.  a U shaped function.

          *  C.  a linear function.

    D.  a quadratic function.

              Factual

   21.      Which of the following holds that high arousal facilitates performance on easy tasks

              but low arousal facilitates performance on difficult tasks?  (p. 118)

              A.  Optimal Stimulation Theory.

          *  B.  Yerkes-Dodson Law.

              C.  Apter’s Goal-Dependent Theory.

              D.  None of the above.

              Conceptual

   22.      Sensory deprivation produces  (p. 121)

    A.  reduced ability to concentrate and think clearly.

    B.  high arousal. 

    C.  low arousal.

        D.  reduced ability to concentrate and think clearly, and high arousal.

          *  E.  reduced ability to concentrate and think clearly, and low arousal. 

              Factual

W23.     Sensory deprivation tends to  (p. 121-122)

    A.  be experienced as aversive.

    B.  be experienced as relaxing and soothing.

    C.  produce deficits in intellectual functioning.

          *  D.  be experienced as aversive and produce deficits in intellectual functioning.

              

              Factual

   24.      Which of the following best describes the anxious individual?  (p. 122)

    A.  They have a chronically high level of arousal.

    B.  They are more reactive to novelty and threats.

    C.  They have a negative view of the world.

          *  D.  all of these. 

              Factual

   25.      Which of the following holds that the positive or negative affect associated

              with a given level of arousal is determined by whether the individual’s purpose

              at the time is to experience achievement or pleasure?  (p. 122)

              A.  Optimal Stimulation Theory

              B.  Yerkes-Dodson Law

          *  C.  Apter’s Goal-Dependent Theory

              D.  None of these.

              Conceptual

   26.      According to Apter’s goal-dependent theory, relaxation is viewed as

              undesirable when a person has a _______ goal.  (p. 122)

              A.  telic

          *  B.  paratelic

              C.  negative

              D.  positive

              Conceptual

   27.      According to Apter’s theory  if we are motivated by a desire to achieve goals 

              (telic goals), we will likely experience high arousal as  (p. 122)

          *  A.  anxiety.

    B.  excitement.

        C.  relaxation.

    D.  boredom.

              Conceptual

W28.     According to Apter’s theory  if we are motivated by a desire to experience 

              pleasure (paratelic goals), we will likely experience low arousal as  (p. 122)

        A.  anxiety.

    B.  excitement.

        C.  relaxation.

          *  D.  boredom.

              Conceptual

   29.      According to Easterbrook’s theory on the ‘hardwired’ relationship between

              arousal and attention, selective attention is most characteristic of   (p. 123)

          *  A.  high levels of arousal.

              B.  moderate levels of arousal.

              C.  low levels of arousal.

              D.  all levels of arousal.

              Factual

   30.      Attention under low arousal has been characterized by Easterbrook as  (p. 123)  

          *  A.  broad/inclusive.

    B.  narrow/exclusive.

    C.  focused/systematic.

       D.  drifting/wandering.

              Factual

   31.      Attention under high arousal has been characterized by Easterbrook as  (p. 123)    

              A.  broad/inclusive.

          *  B.  narrow/exclusive.

    C.  focused/systematic.

       D.  drifting/wandering.

    

              Factual

W32.     The reorganization of attention refers to  (p. 123)

    A.  the broadening of attention.

    B.  the narrowing of attention.

          *  C.  the shift of attention to threat cues.

    D.  the shift of attention to relaxation cues.

              Conceptual

   33.      If it is assumed that our attention has to be ‘broad and inclusive’ in order for us to

              perform a difficult task well, then Easterbrook’s ‘hard-wired arousal-attention theory’

              would predict that  (p. 123)

          *  A.  performance of difficult tasks would be best at low levels of arousal.

              B.  performance of difficult tasks would be best at high levels of arousal.

              C.  performance of difficult tasks would be unaffected by the level of arousal.

              D.  performance of difficult tasks has a positive linear relationship with arousal.

              Applied

   34.      If we assume that we are in a high state of arousal when we are excited and having

              fun, then Easterbrook’s theory would predict that  (p. 123)

              A.  we would probably be oblivious to threatening cues.

          *  B.  we would probably be hypervigilant to threatening cues.

              C.  we are no more nor less vigilant to threatening cues tha we are when not excited

                    and having fun.

              D.  None of these.

              Applied

   35.      The negative activation system is designed to  (p. 124)

    A.  ensure organisms obtain the resources necessary for survival of the individual.

    B.  ensure organisms obtain the resources necessary for survival of the group.

          *  C.  keeps organisms out of trouble.

    D.  do all of these.

              Factual

   36.      Unexplained arousal  (p. 125)

    A.  has little impact on performance.

    B.  tends to improve performance.

          *  C.  has important psychological implications for performance.

    D.  is a source of positive affect.

              Factual

   37.      High trait arousal is often called  (p. 125)

              A.  extraversion.

              B.  introversion.

              C.  cognitive dissonance.

          *  D.  anxiety.

              Factual

   38.      No matter where she’s at, nor what she is doing, Ginny seems to believe that 

              something bad is going to happen and that she will not be able to deal with it 

              when it happens.  When her friends ask her to go places or do things with them,

              she often declines their invitations.  Ginny most likely would be characterized 

              (p. 125-126)

          *  A.  as high in trait anxiety.

              B.  as high in evaluation anxiety.

              C.  as high in anxiety due to cognitive dissonance.

              D.  as high in situational anxiety.

              Applied

   39.      Debilitating anxiety refers to anxiety  (p. 127)

    A.  with no known cause.

    B.  that is out of proportion to the danger in the situation.

    C.  that broadens attention.

          *  D.  that is out of proportion to the danger in the situation and with no known cause.

              Factual

   40.      A person who is high in trait arousal is most likely to be characterized as  (p. 125-129)

              A.  an extravert.

              B.  an optimist.

            *C.  a pessimist.

              D.  an extravert and an optimist.

              Conceptual

   41.      A transitory emotional response involving feelings of tension and apprehension

              best characterizes  (p. 126)

              A.  extraversion.

              B.  introversion.

              C.  trait anxiety.

          *  D.  state anxiety.

              Conceptual

   42.      Kagan’s timidity theory, Eysenck’s extraversion/introversion theory, Gray’s

              behavioral inhibition theory, and Barlow’s anxious-apprehension model all

              tend to have in common their emphasis on the importance of  (p. 127)

              A.  the cognitive component of state anxiety.

              B.  the cognitive component of trait anxiety.

              C.  the biological component of state anxiety.

          *  D.  the biological component of trait anxiety.

              Conceptual

   43.      According to Kagan  (p. 127)

          *  A.  inhibited children are characterized by high sympathetic arousal.

    B.  uninhibited children are characterized by high sympathetic arousal.

    C.  inhibited children are characterized by high cortical arousal.

    D.  uninhibited children are characterized by high cortical arousal.

              Factual

   44.      Extraverts as compared with introverts are more likely to  (p. 127-128)

          *  A.  seek out situations with a high stimulation value.

    B.  seek out situations with a low stimulation level.

    C.  attempt to control people in their environment.

    D.  avoid controlling people in their environment.

              Factual

   45.      Introverts compared to extraverts are more likely to  (p. 127-128)

        A.  seek out situations with a high stimulation value.

          *  B.  seek out situations with a low stimulation level.

    C.  attempt to control people in their environment.

    D.  avoid controlling people in their environment.

              Factual

   46.      According to Gray, anxious individuals  (p. 128)

          *  A.  have an active behavioral inhibition system.

    B.  have an active behavioral approach system.

    C.  are introverted.

    D.  are extraverted.

              Factual

W47.     According to Gray, impulsive individuals  (p. 128)

    A.  have an active behavioral inhibition system.

          *  B.  have an active behavioral approach system.

    C.  are introverted.

    D.  are extraverted.

              Factual

   48.      According to Barlow, negative affect causes  (p. 128)

    A.  a shift in attention to task variables.

          *  B.  a shift in attention to a self-evaluative focus.

    C.  performance to improve because of increased arousal.

    D.  all of these.

              Factual

   49.      People who are anxious have a tendency to be  (p. 129)

    A.  constantly vigilant to threats.

    B.  constantly vigilant to dangers.

    C.  prepared to make certain types of associations that signal threat.

          *  D.  all of these.

 

              Conceptual

   50.      Beck has argued that anxious individuals tend to  (p. 130)

    A.  distort information they process about the world.

    B.  develop a negative schema of the world.

    C.  change their schemas or implicit theories of the world when arousal is lowered.          

          *  D.  distort information they process about the world and develop a negative schema

          of the world.

              

              Factual    

W51.     High trait arousal  (p. 131)

    A.  has no effect on peak performance.

    B.  facilitates peak performance.

          *  C.  is a major obstacle to peak performance.

    D.  only affect peak performance in simple tasks.

              Factual

   52.      Fluctuations in arousal are caused by  (p. 132)

        A.  chronic anxiety.

    B.  rhythmic activity of the nervous system.

    C.  stimulation of sensory systems.

          *  D.  rhythmic activity of the nervous system and stimulation of sensory systems.

              Factual

   53.      In Jouvet’s model of the alternating activity of the raphe nuclei and the locus

              coeruleus, the raphe nuclei secrete  (p. 132)

              A.  norepinephrine.

          *  B.  serotonin.

              C.  epinephrine.

              D.  dopamine.

              Factual

 

   54.      In Jouvet’s model of the alternating activity of the raphe nuclei and the locus

              coeruleus, the locus coeruleus secretes  (p. 132)

          *  A.  norepinephrine.

              B.  serotonin.

              C.  epinephrine.

              D.  dopamine

              Factual

   55.      In Jouvet’s model of the alternating activity of the raphe nuclei and the locus

              coeruleus, increased activity of the raphe nuclei is associated with  (p. 132)

              A.  increased cortical activity.

          *  B.  decreased cortical activity.

              C.  increases in affect.

              D.  decreases in affect.

              Factual

   56.      The alternating activity of the raphe nuclei and the locus coeruleus is thought 

              to play a role in  (p. 132)

              A.  producing the unpleasantness associated with cognitive dissonance.

              B.  producing the intrusive thinking associated with test anxiety.

              C.  producing the dislike for competition.  

          *  D.  producing fluctuations in arousal.

              Conceptual            

   57.      Restricted environmental stimulation technique (REST) has been used to treat 

              sensory overload. It has been suggested that REST teaches people to  (p. 133)

    A.  attend to external versus internal cues.

          *  B.  attend to internal versus external cues.

    C.  process less information.

    D.  process more information.

              Factual

   58.      One way to deal with the sensory overload that comes from complex environments 

              is to  (p. 133)

    A.  engage in the process of denial.

        B.  engage in the process of distraction.

          *  C.  learn to break the information down into manageable units.

    D.  learn to become less sensitive to the high arousal that complex environments             tend to produce.

              Factual

   59.      Cognitive dissonance occurs when  (p. 135)

          *  A.  we encounter new information that is inconsistent with existing beliefs and attitudes.

    B.  we experience sensory overload.

    C.  we experience fluctuations in arousal. 

    D.  arousal is unexplained.

              Factual

   60.      Cognitive dissonance  (p. 136)

    A.  tends to facilitate performance on subsequent overlearned tasks.

    B.  tends to interfere with performance on subsequent difficult or complex tasks.

    C.  has no effect on  either overlearned tasks or difficult/complex tasks.

          *  D.  tends to facilitate performance on subsequent overlearned tasks and to interfere

                    with performance on subsequent difficult or complex tasks.

              Factual

   61.      According to Sarason, the reason test anxiety interferes with test performance is 

              because test anxiety produces  (p. 137-138)

    A.  task-irrelevant distractive thinking.

          *  B.  self-preoccupying intrusive thinking.

    C.  a narrowing of attention.

    D.  reorganization of attention.

              Factual

   62.      Spence and Helmreich found that students with high grades were  (p. 139)

    A.  low in both work/mastery and competitiveness.

          *  B.  high in work/mastery but low in competitiveness. 

    C.  low in work/mastery but high in competitiveness.

    D.  high in both work/mastery and competitiveness. 

              Factual

   63.      It has been found that annual incomes were lowest among people who 

              were  (p. 140)

          *  A.  low in both work/mastery and competitiveness.

        B.  high in work/mastery but low in competitiveness. 

    C.  low in work/mastery but high in competitiveness.

    D.  high in both work/mastery and competitiveness. 

              Factual

   64.      Evidence indicates that  (p. 141)

    A.  competitiveness is inherited.

          *  B.  competitiveness appears to be learned. 

    C.  competitiveness is a rational strategy that some people adopt. 

    D.  competitiveness results in high levels of performance.

              Factual

   65.      Having a strong need to win has been linked to  (p. 142)

    A.  good coping skills.

          *  B.  poor coping skills.

    C.  having a positive view of the world.

    D.  good self-esteem.

              Factual

W66.     Many people dislike competition because competition  (p. 142)

    A.  arouses self-image concerns.

    B.  arouses performance concerns.

    C.  increases attention.

          *  D.  arouses self-image and performance concerns.

              Factual

   67.      Evidence suggests that  (p. 144)

          *  A.  all forms of arousal are pooled.

    B.  only the various types of state arousal are pooled.

    C.  there is no evidence for the idea of pooled arousal.

    D.  each type of arousal works independently of the others except trait arousal  

                    which pools.

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